AERO2005

Aerospace Electrical and

Electronic Engineering 2

Topic 2 – Electronic Converter

AC to AC
• Single-phase AC voltage controllers: resistive load, RL load
• Three-phase voltage controllers: Y loads (resistive and RL), ∆ resistive load
• Some applications of AC/AC converters: Induction motor speed control, static VAR control

3
 Introduction to AC to AC Converters

Definition: Devices that convert alternating current (AC) from one level to another without converting to direct current (DC) in
between.
Applications: Industrial motor drives, power control in appliances, renewable energy systems, and variable frequency drives.
Types of AC to AC Converters:
• Phase Control
• Cycloconverters
 Phase Control
Objective: Adjust the voltage and power delivered to AC loads by modifying the waveform.

Phase control is a method used to regulate the voltage and power delivered to an AC load by adjusting the phase angle of the AC input waveform. By changing the phase angle, you can control the portion of each AC cycle that reaches the load, thus altering the average
power. This approach is particularly useful in applications where you want smooth control over power levels, such as in lighting dimmers, motor speed control, and heating elements.

Mechanism:

• Uses thyristors or triacs to control the phase angle of the AC input waveform.

• By delaying the point at which the current begins to flow, the average power delivered to the load can be controlled.

Applications: Dimmers, soft-start circuits for motors, and temperature control in heating elements.

Diagram: Include a simplified circuit diagram of a phase-controlled converter.

 Characteristics of Phase Control

Key Parameters:

• Phase Angle: Determines the power output.

• Control Range: Typically between 0° and 180° for each half-cycle.

Advantages:

• Simple design.

• Cost-effective.

Disadvantages:

• Generates harmonics, which can affect power quality.

• Less efficient than some other converters.

 Single-phase AC voltage controllers

❑ An AC voltage controller is a converter that controls the voltage, current,

and average power delivered to an AC load from an AC source. Electronic
switches connect or disconnect the source and load at regular intervals. In a
pattern of switching which is called phase control, switching occurs in
every cycle of the source and its effect is to remove a part of the source
waveform before reaching the load. Another control method is called
Integral-Cycle Control, in which the source is connected for several periods
or disconnected for several periods.

✓ Electronic switches are shown as thyristors (SCRs) in parallel. This

arrangement of SCRs makes it possible for bidirectional current to pass
through the load. This SCR connection is called antiparallel because
SCRs transfer current in two opposite directions. A triac is equivalent to
two parallel-inverted SCRs. Other controlled switches can also be used
instead of SCRs.

Figure 5-1- a) single-phase AC voltage controller with resistive load with phase 7
control, b) waveforms.
❑ The principles of operation of a single-phase voltage controller using the phase control method are quite similar to the
controlled half-wave rectifier. In this case, the load current includes both positive half-cycle and negative half-cycle. An
analysis similar to that performed for the controlled half-wave rectifier can be performed for half the operating period of
the AC voltage controller. If the gate signal S2 is applied one half-cycle after S1, the negative half-cycle analysis is
exactly the same as the positive half-cycle, except for the algebraic sign of the voltage and current. Then, due to the
symmetry, the results can be generalized to describe the performance in the entire periodicity. AC voltage controllers
based on phase control have many practical applications including light regulation circuits (dimmer) and speed control of
induction motors. The input voltage source is AC type and the output is AC (of course non-sinusoidal) and therefore the
circuit is classified in the category of AC to AC converters.

❑ Some of the basic features of a single-phase voltage controller circuit are:

1- SCRs cannot conduct simultaneously.
2- When one of the SCRs is on, the load voltage is the same as the source voltage. When both SCRs are off, the load voltage is
zero.
3- When each of the SCRs is on, the voltage across the two ends of the switch (vsw) is zero, and when none of the SCRs are on,
its voltage is equal to the source voltage.
4- Since the SCRs are on for equal time periods, the average source and load current is zero. The average current of an SCR is
non-zero because the SCR current is unidirectional.
5- If the SCRs are on for equal periods of time, the effective current of each SCR is 1/√2 times the
8
effective current of the load.
 single-phase AC voltage controller with resistive load

❑ In the single-phase AC voltage controller circuit, if the load is resistive, assuming the source voltage is equal to:
𝑣𝑠 ω𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡
✓ The output voltage is equal to:

𝑣𝑜 𝜔𝑡 = ቊ𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 α <𝜔𝑡 < 𝜋 ‫و‬ 𝛼 + 𝜋 < 𝜔𝑡 < 2π )1-5(

0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
The effective value of the load voltage is obtained by ✓
using the symmetry of the positive and negative half-
cycles of the voltage waveform, and as a result, only
one half-cycle of the waveform is evaluated:

𝜋
1 2𝑑
𝑉𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡
𝜋 -5(
𝛼
)3

𝑉𝑚 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
= 1− + 9
Figure 5-2- The effective value of normalized load voltage in
2 𝜋 2π )2-5( terms of delay angle, for single-phase AC voltage controller with
resistive load.
 𝑉𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠
✓ The effective current of load and source is equal to: 𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝑅
❑ The load power factor is equal to: 𝑉𝑚 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
𝑉𝑜2, 𝑟𝑚𝑠 Τ𝑅
𝑉𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 1− +
𝑃 𝑃 2 𝜋 2π
pf = = = = =
𝑆 𝑉𝑠,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑠,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑠,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 Τ𝑅 𝑉𝑠,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚 Τ 2

𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
pf = 1− +
𝜋 2π )3-5(
✓ For the unit power factor, α = 0, which is the same as an uncontrolled resistive load. The power
factor for α > 0 will be smaller than one (unit).
❑ Due to half-wave symmetry, the average source current is zero. The average current of SCRs is equal to:
π
1 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚
𝐼SCR,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = 1+cos α )4-5(
2π 𝑅 2π𝑅
𝛼
✓ Since each SCR carries only half a cycle of line current, the effective current of each SCR is equal
to:
𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 -5( 10
𝐼SCR,𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 )5
❑Since the source and load currents are non-
sinusoidal, harmonic distortion will be an
issue to consider when designing and
implementing an AC voltage controller. Due
to half-wave symmetry, only odd harmonics
are present in the line current waveform. The
base current, which is the current for α = 0, is
obtained by dividing the source voltage by the
resistance.

Figure 3-5- Normalized harmonic content, in terms of delay angle, for

single-phase AC voltage controller. Cn is the normalized range.

11
 ❑ Example 5-1- single-phase AC voltage controller with resistive load
A single-phase AC voltage controller has a source with an RMS value of 120V and a frequency of 60Hz. The load
resistance is 15Ω. It is required to determine: a) The delay angle required to deliver 500W to the load, b) The RMS
current of the source, c) The RMS and average currents of the SCRs, d) The power factor, e) The total harmonic
distortion (THD) of the source current.
■ Solution
To determine the RMS voltage required to deliver 500W to a 15Ω load, we can use the power formula:

𝑉𝑜2, 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃=
𝑅

𝑉𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑃𝑅 = 500 15 = 86.6 V

According to Figure 5-2, the delay angle required for a normalized output of 88.6/120 = 0.72 is approximately 90°. A
more precise answer can be obtained by numerically solving the following equation in terms of 𝛼α, which is
expressed as:

𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2α
86.6 − 120 1 − + =0
𝜋 2π

𝛼 = 1.54 rad=88.1∘
 𝑉𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 86.6
b) The effective value of the source current is equal to: 𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 5.77 A
𝑅 15
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 5.77
c) SCR currents are equal to: 𝐼SCR,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 4.08 A
2 2

2 120
𝐼SCR,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1+cos 88.1∘ = 1.86 A
d) The power factor is equal to: 2π 15
𝑃 500
pf = = = 0.72
𝑆 120 5.77
e) The effective flow of the base is equal to: 𝑉s,𝑟𝑚s 120
𝐼base = = = 8.0 A
𝑅 15

The effective value of the main frequency current is obtained from C1 in the diagram of
Figure 3-5.
2 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 5.772 − 4.92
THD is equal to: 𝑇𝐻𝐷 = = = 0.63=63%
𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 4.9

𝐶1 ≈ 0.61⇒𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐶1 𝐼base = 0.61 8.0 = 4.9 A

 Single-phase controller with one RL load

❑ In this circuit, when the gate signal 𝑆1 is applied at 𝜔𝑡=𝛼, Kirchhoff's voltage
law for the circuit is expressed as follows:

𝑑𝑖o 𝑡
𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖o 𝑡 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

✓ This combination of SCRs acts like a semiconductor relay that

connects or disconnects the connection of the load to the source
by controlling the gate of the SCRs.
✓ When the gate signal is not applied, the load is separated from
the source, and when the gate signal is applied continuously, the
load has the same voltage as the source.
✓ In practice, the gate signal can be a series of high-frequency
pulses instead of a continuous DC signal.

Figure 4-5- a) single-phase controller with RL load, b)

sample waveforms. 14
✓ Solving this equation to obtain the current is equal to:

𝑉𝑚 𝛼−𝜔𝑡 Τ𝜔𝜏
𝑖o 𝜔𝑡 = ቐ 𝑍 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝜃 𝑒 𝛼 ≤𝜔𝑡≤β
)6-5(
0 otherwise

where
ω𝐿
𝑍= 𝑅2 + ω𝐿 2 ‫و‬ θ = tan−1
𝑅

✓ The extinction angle β is the angle at which the current returns to zero, when ωt = β:

𝑉𝑚 𝛼−β Τ𝜔𝜏 )7-5(

𝑖o β = 0= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 β − 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝜃 𝑒
𝑍
❑ A gate signal at ωt = α +  is applied to S2 and the load current becomes negative, but has a shape similar to a
positive half cycle. The conduction angle is defined as:

γ=β−α
❑ The interval between  and β is when the source voltage is negative and the load current is still positive,
and in this case S2 cannot turn on because it is not in forward bias. Applying the gate signal S2 must be
delayed at least until the current S1 reaches zero at ωt = β . As a result, the delay angle is at least equal to
β - .
𝛼 ≥β−𝜋 )8-5(
✓ The limiting condition, when β - α = , is obtained by examining equation 7-5. When α = , the equation
becomes:

sin β − α = 0 => β − 𝛼 = 𝜋
✓ Therefore, when α = , we have:
γ=

✓ If 𝛼<𝜃, then 𝛾=𝜋, which implies that the gate signal must continue until after 𝜔𝑡=𝜃.

✓ In the limiting case, when 𝛾=𝜋, one SCR will always conduct, and the voltage across the load will be equal to
the source voltage. In this case, the load voltage and current are sinusoidal, and the circuit is analyzed using the
phasor method for AC circuits. The power delivered to the load can be continuously controlled between two
limiting values corresponding to the full source voltage and zero.
❑ Knowing that the square of the current waveform repeats every  radians, we can obtain
an expression for the effective value of the load current.
β
1 )9-5(
𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑖𝑜2 ω𝑡 𝑑 ω𝑡
π
α

✓ The power absorbed by the load is obtained from the following equation:
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑜2, 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅

❑ The effective amount of current in each SCR is equal to

𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼SCR,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = )10-5(
2

✓ The average value of the load current is zero, but each SCR transmits half a cycle of the
current waveform, and the average SCR current is equal to:

𝛽
1
𝐼SCR,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑖𝑜 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 )11-5(
2𝜋
𝛼
❑ Example 5-2- single-phase voltage controller with RL load
For a single-phase voltage controller with an RMS source voltage of 120V and frequency of 60Hz, the load is a
series RL combination with values of 𝑅=20Ω and 𝐿=50 mHL. The delay angle is 𝛼=90∘. It is required to determine: a)
An expression for the load current for the first half-cycle, b) The RMS load current, c) The RMS current of the SCR, d)
The average current of the SCR, e) The power delivered to the load, f) The power factor.
■ Solution
𝑍= 𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 2 = 20 2 + 377 0.05 2 = 27.5Ω
A) According to the available indicators, it can be written:
𝜔𝐿 377 0.05
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 0.756 rad
𝑅 20

𝐿 0.05
𝜔𝜏 = 𝜔 = 377 = 0.943 rad
𝑅 20

𝑉𝑚 120 2
= = 6.18 A
𝑍 27.5

𝛼 = 90∘ = 1.57 rad

𝑉𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝜃 𝑒 𝛼Τ𝜔𝜏 = 23.8 A
𝑍
The current is 𝑖𝑜 ω𝑡 = 6.18𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 0.756 − 23.8𝑒 −ω𝑡Τ0.943 A 𝛼 ≤ ω𝑡 ≤ β

The extinction angle 𝛽 is obtained by numerically solving 𝑖(𝛽)=0 in the equation above, which yields:
β = 3.83 rad=220∘
Note that the conduction angle 𝛾=𝛽−𝛼=2.26 rad=130∘, which is less than the limiting value of 180∘ .
b) The effective value of the load current is equal to:
3.83
1
𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 6.18sin ω𝑡 − 0.756 − 23.8𝑒 −ω𝑡Τ0.943 2𝑑 ω𝑡 = 2.71 A
π
1.57

c) The effective amount of current in each SCR is equal to: 𝐼𝑜,𝑟𝑚𝑠 2.71
𝐼SCR,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = = 1.92 A
2 2
d) The average current of each SCR is equal to:
3.83
1
𝐼SCR,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 6.18sin ω𝑡 − 0.756 − 23.8𝑒 −ω𝑡Τ0.943 𝑑 ω𝑡 = 1.04 A
2π
1.57
e) The power absorbed by the load is equal to:
P = 𝐼𝑜2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 R = 2.71 2 20 = 147 W
f) The power factor is calculated from the P/S relationship. 𝑃 𝑃 147
pf = = = = 0.45=45%
𝑆 𝑉s,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼s,𝑟𝑚𝑠 120 2.71
 Some applications of AC/AC converters

A) Induction motor speed control

❑ The speed of the squirrel cage induction motor can be controlled by changing the voltage or frequency. AC voltage controller
is suitable for some speed control applications. The torque produced by an induction motor is proportional to the second
power (square) of the applied voltage. If a load has a torque-speed characteristic like Figure 8-5, the speed can be controlled
by adjusting the motor voltage. The working point speed corresponds to the intersection point of the torque-speed curves of
the motor and the load. A fan or pump, where the required torque is approximately proportional to the square of the speed, are
suitable loads for this type of speed control.

❑ When using the mentioned single-phase or three-phase

phase control method, the energy efficiency is low,
especially at low speeds. In fact, large slip at low speed
causes high losses in the rotor. There are certain
applications where the load is small, such as single-phase
Fractional Horse Power motors, or when the duration of
low-speed operation is short. Motor speed control using a
variable frequency source obtained from the inverter
circuit is usually a preferred method.
20
Figure 5-8- Torque-speed
characteristic of an induction motor.
 Static VAR Control

❑ In order to correct the power factor, capacitors are usually placed in parallel with inductive loads. If a load requires constant
reactive power (VAR), choosing a constant capacitor can correct the power factor to one (unity). But if a load needs variable
reactive power, using a fixed capacitor will cause a variable power factor. The circuit in Figure 9-5 shows the use of an AC
voltage regulator to maintain the power factor at unity. The power factor correction capacitor delivers a constant amount of
reactive power that is generally greater than the amount required by the load. A parallel inductor absorbs a variable amount of
reactive power, depending on the delay angle of the SCRs. The net amount of reactive power delivered by the inductor-
capacitor assembly is controlled to match the amount absorbed by the load. In case of changing the reactive power required
by the load, the delay angle is adjusted so that the power factor is kept at the unit value. This type of power factor correction
is known as Static VAR Control. SCRs are placed in the inductor branch, instead of being placed in the capacitor branch,
because very high currents can be generated by connecting and disconnecting the capacitor with the SCR.

✓ Static reactive power (VAR) control has the advantage of being able to
adjust very quickly in response to changes in load requirements. With
static VAR control, reactive power is continuously adjustable, instead of
having discrete levels that are input and output using switched capacitor
banks with circuit breakers. Static VAR control is increasingly used in
facilities such as Electric Arc Furnaces, whose reactive power is rapidly
changing. Filters are usually required to remove the harmonic currents
produced by the switched inductor.

Figure 9-5. Static VAR control 21

 Summary

✓ Voltage controllers are electronic switches that connect or disconnect a load from the AC source at
specified intervals. This type of circuit is classified as an AC to AC converter.
✓ Voltage controllers are used in applications such as single-phase lighting control circuits, speed control
of single-phase or three-phase induction motors, and static reactive power (VAR) control.
✓ The delay angle of the thyristors determines the period of time the switch is on and thus controls the
effective value of the load voltage. The load voltage control range is between the full voltage of the
AC source and zero.
✓ An AC voltage regulator can be designed to be either fully on or fully off. This application is used as a
solid-state relay.
✓ Load and source currents and voltages in AC voltage controllers can have significant harmonic
content. For equal delay angles in positive and negative half-cycle, the average value of current is zero
and only odd harmonics are present.
✓ Three-phase AC voltage controllers can be connected to star or delta connected loads.
✓ Simulation of single-phase and three-phase voltage controllers, especially in the conditions of using
resistive-inductive loads and considering the complexity of the analysis, is an efficient analysis
method 22
 DC to DC
Convertors
 ‫‪ -1-6‬مبدل باک (کاهنده)‬
‫‪ -2-6‬مبدل بوست (افزاینده)‬
‫‪ -3-6‬مبدل باک ـ بوست‬
‫‪ -4-6‬مبدل چوک‬

‫‪24‬‬
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

Figure 6-1- a) a basic switching

DC/DC converter, b) switching
equivalent, c) output voltage.

• The power absorbed by the ideal key is zero.

• When the switch is open, there is no current in it.
• When the switch is closed, there is no voltage drop on it. Therefore, all the power is absorbed by the load, and the
energy efficiency becomes 100%.
• Losses occur in real switches because the voltage drop across them when they are on is not zero, and the switch
must pass through the linear region when there is a transition from one state to another.

❑ One way to obtain a DC output from the above circuit is to

place a low-pass filter after the switch.
❑ The diode provides a path for the inductor current when the
switch is open and reverses the bias when the switch is closed.

❑ This circuit is called a buck converter or step-down converter

Figure 6-2- Buck 25
converter view using circuit
because the output voltage is lower than the input voltage. modification of Figure 6-1.
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

❑ This analysis assumes that the diode always remains in forward bias when the switch is open, which implies that the inductor
current remains positive. The induction current that remains positive throughout the switching period is known as continuous
current.
❑ On the other hand, Discontinuous Current is described by the characteristic of the inductor current returning to zero in each
periodic period.
Buck converter analysis starts by considering the following assumptions
1- The circuit works in power mode.
2- The inductor current is continuous (always positive).
3- The capacitor is very large, and the output voltage is kept at a constant value of Vo. This restriction is later removed to
show the effect of finite capacitance.
4- The period of switching is equal to T. The key is closed for the duration DT and open for the time (1-D)T.
5- The components are ideal. 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑡
6- The current of the inductor is alternating.
7- The average value of the inductor voltage and the average value of the capacitor current is zero.
𝑡+𝑇 𝑡+𝑇
1 1
𝐼𝐶 = න 𝑖𝐶 λ 𝑑λ = 0 𝑉𝐿 = න 𝑣𝐿 λ 𝑑λ = 0
𝑇 𝑇
𝑡 𝑡
8- The power supplied by the source is equal to the power delivered to the load. For non-ideal components, the source also
supplies power related to losses.
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 Ideally state
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 + losses In the non-ideal state
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

❑ The filter input, vx, is equal to Vs when the switch is closed and zero when the switch is open, which causes
the inductor current to remain positive and keep the diode on. If the switch is closed intermittently in a duty
cycle D, the average voltage at the input of the filter is equal to VsD.

❑ The key point to analyze and determine the output voltage

Vo is to check the inductor current and voltage, first for
the closed switch and then for the open switch.

❑ The net change in inductor current must be zero for

steady-state operation after one cycle.

Figure 6-3-b) equivalent circuit when the switch is closed, c) equivalent circuit when
27
the switch is open.
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

❑ Analysis for closed state: when the switch is closed in the buck converter circuit, the bias diode is reversed and the
inductor voltage is equal to:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑜
𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿 => =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑜

⇒ = =
Δ𝑡 𝐷𝑇 𝐿

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜
Δ𝑖𝐿 closed = 𝐷𝑇
𝐿
✓ The current derivative is a positive constant value and the current is linear.
❑ Analysis for open switch mode: When the switch is open, the diode is forward biased
to pass the inductor current. In this case, the inductor voltage is equal to: 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 −𝑉𝑜
𝑣𝐿 = −𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿 => =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑜
⇒ = 1−𝐷 𝑇 = − 𝐿 =>
Δ𝑡
𝑉𝑜
Δ𝑖𝐿 open = − 1−𝐷 𝑇
𝐿
✓ The derivative of the inductor current is a constant negative value and the current decreases linearly.
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

❑ Steady mode operation requires that the inductor current at the end of the switching period be equal to the
beginning, meaning that the net change in the inductor current after one switching period is zero:
𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
Δ𝑖𝐿 closed + Δ𝑖𝐿 open =0⇒ 𝐿
𝐷𝑇 − 𝐿
1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 )1-6(

The buck converter produces an output voltage that is less than or equal to the input.

❑ The average current of the inductor must be equal to the average current of the load resistor (because the
average current of the capacitor must be zero for the operation of the steady mode)
𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 = )2-6(
𝑅
❑ The maximum and minimum values ​of the inductor current are calculated as
Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜 1 1−𝐷
𝐼max = 𝐼𝐿 + = + 1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑜 + )3-6(
2 𝑅 2 𝐿 𝑅 2𝐿𝑓

Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜 1 1−𝐷
𝐼min = 𝐼𝐿 − = − 1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑜 − )4-6(
2 𝑅 2 𝐿 𝑅 2𝐿𝑓
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

A suggested way to obtain the output voltage based on the inductor voltage
❑ Considering that for an alternating operation period, the
average voltage of the inductor is equal to zero:

𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝐷𝑇 + −𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 0
Solving gives : 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒔 𝐃

✓ Note that the output voltage depends only on the input

and the cycle duration D.

✓ If the input voltage changes, the output voltage can be

adjusted appropriately by adjusting the duration of cycle.

✓ A feedback loop is needed to sample the output voltage,

compare it to a reference value, and adjust the duration of
cycle of the switch accordingly. Figure 6-4- Buck converter waveforms: a)
inductor voltage, b) inductor current, c)
capacitor current.
 THE BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER

✓ For the preceding analysis to be valid, the continuity of the inductor current must be checked. Because the
minimum inductor current for a continuous current must be positive, a negative minimum value is not allowed
due to the existence of a diode and indicates a discrete current. The circuit will also work for discrete inductor
current, but the above analysis will not be valid. Because Imin=0 is the boundary between continuous and
discrete current, we can write:
1 1−𝐷 1−𝐷 𝑅 1−𝐷 𝑅 )5-6(
𝐼min = 0 = 𝑉𝑜 − → 𝐿𝑓 min = → 𝐿min =
𝑅 2𝐿𝑓 2 2𝑓

✓ Lmin is the minimum self-induction coefficient required for continuous current.

✓ Some designers choose 25% larger than Lmin as the inductor value.

❑ In the design of a buck converter, the peak-to-peak change of the inductor current is often used as a design
criterion. To determine the value of the self-induction coefficient for a specific peak-to-peak inductance current
in direct current operation, we can write:

𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷
Δ𝑖𝐿 = 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐷= →𝐿= 𝐷=
𝐿 𝐿𝑓 𝐿𝑓 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑓 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑓 )6-6(
 Output voltage ripple
❑ In the previous analysis, the capacitor was assumed to be too large to keep the output voltage constant.

❑ In practice, the output voltage cannot be kept completely constant with a limited capacitance. The change in
the output voltage, or ripple, is calculated from the voltage-current relationship of the capacitor.

❑ While the capacitor current is positive, the capacitor is charged. The current in the capacitor is equal to:
𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝐿 − 𝑖𝑅
Δ𝑄
From the definition of capacitance we have 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 ⇒ Δ𝑄 = 𝐶Δ𝑉𝑜 , Δ𝑉𝑜 =
𝐶

✓ The change in electric charge ∆Q is equal to the triangular area above the time diagram.
1 𝑇 𝛥𝑖𝐿 𝑇 𝛥𝑖𝐿 𝑇 𝛥𝑖𝐿
𝛥𝑄 = = => 𝛥𝑉𝑜 = =
2 2 2 8C 8
𝑇𝑉 𝑉 1−𝐷
𝛥𝑉𝑜 = 𝑜 1−𝐷 𝑇= 𝑜 2
8𝐶𝐿 8𝐶𝐿𝑓

✓ Ripple as a fraction of the output voltage is equal to:

Δ𝑉𝑜 1−𝐷 1−𝐷

= =>𝐶 = )7-6(
𝑉𝑜 8𝐶𝐿𝑓2 8𝐿 Δ𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 𝑓2
 Output voltage ripple

Δ𝑉𝑜 1−𝐷 1−𝐷

= =>𝐶 = )7-6(
𝑉𝑜 8𝐶𝐿𝑓2 8𝐿 Δ𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 𝑓2

✓ If the voltage ripple is not large, the assumption of a constant

output voltage is reasonable and the aforementioned analysis is
basically valid.
✓ The capacitor must be selected in such a way that it limits the
output ripple to the characteristics of the design, withstands the
maximum output voltage and transfers the required effective
current.
✓ As the switching frequency increases, the minimum inductor size
to produce continuous current and the minimum capacitor size to
limit output ripple both decrease.
As the switching frequency increases, the minimum inductor size to produce continuous
current and the minimum capacitor size to limit output ripple both decrease.
 Example 6-1- Buck converter

✓ A buck DC/DC converter has the following characteristics:

𝑉𝑠 = 50 V, 𝐷 = 0/4, 𝐿 = 400 μH, 𝐶 = 100 μF, 𝑓 = 20 kHz, R = 20 Ω
Assuming ideal elements, calculate: a) output voltage Vo, b) maximum and minimum inductor current, and c) output
voltage ripple.
■Solution
a) It is assumed that the inductor current is continuous, and the output voltage is equal to:
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 = 50 0.4 = 20 V
b) The maximum and minimum current of the inductor is equal to:
1 1−𝐷 1 1 − 0.4 1.5
𝐼max = 𝑉𝑜 + = 20 + = 1 + = 1.75 A
𝑅 2𝐿𝑓 20 2 400 10 −6 20 10 3 2

1 1−𝐷 1.5
𝐼min = 𝑉𝑜 − =1− = 0.25 A
𝑅 2𝐿𝑓 2

The average inductor current is equal to 1A and ∆iL=1.5A. It should be noted that the minimum current of the
inductor is positive and the confirmation is that the assumption of continuous current is valid.
c) Output voltage ripple is equal to:
Δ𝑉𝑜 1−𝐷 1 − 0.4
= = = 0.00469 = 0.469%
𝑉𝑜 8𝐶𝐿𝑓 2 8 400 10 −6 100 10 −6 20,000 2
Since the output voltage ripple is small enough, it is acceptable to assume a constant output voltage.
 Capacitor resistance and its effect on voltage ripple
❑ The output voltage ripple obtained based on the previous relations is based on the ideal capacitor.
❑ A real capacitor can be modeled as a capacitance with an equivalent series resistance (ESR) and an equivalent series
inductance (ESL).
❑ ESR can have a significant effect on the output voltage, and often produces a larger voltage ripple than an ideal capacitor. The
self-inductance coefficient in the capacitor is usually not an important factor in common switching frequencies. The ripple due to
ESR can first be approximated by determining the capacitor current, assuming that the capacitor is ideal.
❑ For Buck converter in DC mode, the capacitor current is triangular current waveform and the voltage change at both ends of the
capacitor resistance is equal to:
-Equivalent Series Resistance
-Equivalent Series Inductance
Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR = Δ𝑖𝐶 𝑟𝐶 = Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑟𝐶
✓ In order to estimate the worst case, it can be assumed that the peak-to-peak ripple voltage caused by ESR is algebraically added to
the ripple caused by the capacitance. Of course, the peak voltages of capacitor ripple and ESR are not the same phase. Therefore,
we can write:

Δ𝑉𝑜 < Δ𝑉𝑜,𝐶 + Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR

✓ that ∆Vo,C is the same as ∆Vo resulting from capacitor ripple formula.

Figure 6-6- A model for capacitor that includes equivalent series resistance (ESR).
✓ The voltage ripple caused by ESR can be much larger than the ripple caused by pure capacitance. In that case, the output
capacitor is selected based on the equivalent series resistance rather than the capacitance alone.
Δ𝑉𝑜 ≈ Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR = Δ𝑖𝐶 𝑟𝐶 )8-6(
✓ The ESR of the capacitor is inversely proportional to the capacitance, and the higher the capacitance, the lower the ESR.
Manufacturers have developed low ESR capacitors for power supply applications.

In Example 6-1, the 100μF capacitor may have an ESR of rC= 0.1 Ω. The ripple voltage due to the
ESR is calculated as
Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR = Δ𝑖𝐶 𝑟𝐶 = Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑟𝐶 = 1.5 A 0.1 Ω = 0.15 V
Expressed as a percent, ∆Vo/Vo is 0.15/20= 0.75 percent. The total ripple can then be approximated as 0.75 percent.
❑ Many buck converters use a second MOSFET instead of a diode. When S2 is on and S1 is off, current flows
upward through S2. The advantage of this structure is that the second MOSFET has a much lower voltage drop
across its ends compared to the diode, which makes the circuit more efficient. This scheme is also called
Synchronous Rectification.

Figure 7-6- Another scheme to implement a buck

converter using a MOSFET instead of a diode (a
synchronous buck converter) to create a lower
voltage drop than a diode, when S1 is off, another
MOSFET called S2 transfers the inductor
current.
 Buck Converter Design

Design a buck converter to produce an output voltage of 18 V across a 10 Ω load resistor. The output voltage ripple
must not exceed 0.5 percent. The dc supply is 48 V. Design for continuous inductor current. Specify the duty ratio,
the switching frequency, the values of the inductor and capacitor, the peak voltage rating of each device, and the
rms current in the inductor and capacitor. Assume ideal components.

■Solution
The duty ratio for continuous-current
𝑉𝑜 18
𝐷= = = 0.375
𝑉𝑠 48
The switching frequency and inductor size must be selected for continuous-current operation. Let the switching
frequency arbitrarily be 40 kHz, which is well above the audio range and is low enough to keep switching losses
small. The minimum inductor size is determined from Eq. (6-14)

1−𝐷 𝑅 1 − 0.375 10
𝐿min = = = 78 μH
2𝑓 2 40,000
Let the inductor be 25 percent larger than the minimum to ensure that inductor current is continuous.

𝐿 = 1.25𝐿min = 1.25 78 μH = 97.5 μH

 Buck Converter Design
Average inductor current and the change in current are determined from Eqs. (6-10) and (6-17)

𝑉𝑜 18 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 48 − 18 1
𝐼𝐿 = = = 1.8 A Δ𝑖𝐿 = 𝐷𝑇 = 0.375 = 2.88 A
𝑅 10 𝐿 97.5 10 −6 40,000

The maximum and minimum inductor currents are determined from Eqs. (6-11) and (6-12)
Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿
𝐼max = 𝐼𝐿 + = 1.8 + 1.44 = 3.24 A 𝐼min = 𝐼𝐿 − = 1.8 − 1.44 = 0.36 A
2 2
The inductor must be rated for rms current, For the offset triangular wave,

2 2
Δ𝑖𝐿 Τ2 1.44
𝐼𝐿,rms = 𝐼𝐿2 + = 1.8 2 + = 1.98 A
3 3

The capacitor is selected using Eq. (6-20). 1−𝐷 1 − 0.375

𝐶= = = 100 μF
8𝐿 Δ𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 𝑓 2 8 97.5 10 −6 0.005 40,000 2

Peak capacitor current is ∆𝑖𝐿 /2 = 1.44A, and rms capacitor current for the triangular waveform is 1.44/ 3 = 0.83 A .
The maximum voltage across the switch and diode is Vs, or 48 V. The inductor voltage when the switch is closed is Vs –
Vo= 48 – 18= 30 V. The inductor voltage when the switch is open is Vo = 18 V. Therefore, the inductor must withstand
30 V. The capacitor must be rated for the 18-V output.
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

❑ Boost converter is another switching converter that works by opening and

closing an electronic switch. Because the output voltage is higher than the
input voltage, this converter is called boost. The analysis process is done by
checking the inductor voltage and current for closed and open switch states.

Figure 6-8- Boost converter. a) Circuit, b)

Equivalent circuit for closed switch mode, c)
Equivalent circuit for open switch mode.
39
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

❑ Analysis of closed state: When the switch is closed, the diode is reverse biased. Kirchhoff's voltage law along the path
including source, inductor and closed switch is:

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠

𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐿 => = => = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 Δ𝑡 𝐷𝑇 𝐿

𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇
Δ𝑖𝐿 closed =
𝐿
✓ The rate of change of current is a constant value and therefore the current increases linearly when the switch is closed.

❑ Analysis of open switch mode: When the switch is open, the inductor current cannot change suddenly. Therefore, the
diode is forward biased to provide a path for the inductor current. Considering that the output voltage Vo is
constant, the voltage across the two ends of the inductor is equal to:
𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑜 Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑜
=> = => = =
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 Δ𝑡 1−𝐷 𝑇 𝐿
𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 𝑇
Δ𝑖𝐿 open =
𝐿
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

❑ For steady state mode operation, the net change in inductor current must be zero. Therefore, we can
write:
𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 𝑇
Δ𝑖𝐿 closed + Δ𝑖𝐿 open =0⇒ + =0
𝐿 𝐿
𝑉𝑠 )9-6(
𝑉𝑜 =
1−𝐷

❑ Also, the average inductor voltage must be zero for alternating operation. By expressing the average voltage of the inductor for
a switching period, it can be written:

𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 + 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 = 0
𝑉𝑠
⇒ 𝑉𝑜 =
1−𝐷

Figure 9-6- Boost converter

waveforms: a) inductor voltage, b)
inductor current, c) diode current,
d) capacitor current.
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

❑ The average current in the inductor is obtained by considering that the average power provided by the source must be equal to the
average power absorbed by the load resistance. The output power is equal to:
𝑉𝑜2 𝑉𝑠 Τ 1 − 𝐷 2
𝑉𝑠2
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 ⇒ 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 1 − 𝐷 2𝑅
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑜2 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
=>𝐼𝐿 = = = )10-6(
1−𝐷 2 𝑅 𝑉𝑠 𝑅 𝑉𝑠
❑ The maximum and minimum currents of the inductor are obtained using the average value and the change values ​in the current:

Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇
𝐼max = 𝐼𝐿 + = + )11-6( 𝐼min = 𝐼𝐿 − = − )12-6(
2 1 − 𝐷 2𝑅 2𝐿 2 1 − 𝐷 2𝑅 2𝐿

❑ The boundary between the continuous and discrete current of the inductor is obtained from the following equation:

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 𝐷 1−𝐷 2 𝑅
𝐼min = 0 ⇒ − =0=> = = => 𝐿𝑓 min =
1−𝐷 2 𝑅 2𝐿 1−𝐷 2 𝑅 2𝐿 2𝐿𝑓 2
𝐷 1 − 𝐷 2𝑅
𝐿min = )13-6(
2𝑓
✓ From a design point of view, it is useful to 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑠 𝐷
obtain L in terms of the desired value of ∆iL: 𝐿= = )14-6(
Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑓
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

Output voltage ripple

❑ The previous equations were obtained by assuming an output voltage with a constant
value and unlimited capacitance. In practice, the limited capacitance causes changes
in the output voltage or ripple. Peak-to-peak output voltage ripple calculation can be
done by examining capacitor current waveform. The change in the electric charge of
the capacitor and as a result its current can be calculated from the following equation:
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑜 𝐷
∆𝑄 = 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐶Δ𝑉𝑜 => Δ𝑉𝑜 = =
𝑅 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑓

Δ𝑉𝑜 𝐷 𝐷
= =>𝐶 = )15-6(
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑓 𝑅 Δ𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 𝑓

✓ Voltage ripple caused by ESR is:

Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR = Δ𝑖𝐶 𝑟𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿,max 𝑟𝐶 )16-6(

 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

❑ Example 6-2- Boost converter design

A boost converter is required to have the output voltage of 8V and supply the load current of 1A. The input voltage varies
from 2.7V to 4.2V. A control circuit adjusts the duty cycle to have a constant output voltage. Select the keying frequency.
Determine a value for the inductor such that the change in inductor current does not exceed 40% of the average inductor current
for all operating modes. Obtain a value for an ideal capacitor such that the output voltage ripple does not exceed 2%. Find the
maximum equivalent resistance in series with the capacitor for a 2% output voltage ripple.
■Solution
Optionally, a value of 200 kHz is selected for the switching frequency. The circuit should be analyzed for both input voltage
boundary ranges in order to obtain the worst case. For Vs=2.7V, the duty cycle is equal to:

𝑉𝑠 2.7
𝐷 =1− =1− = 0.663
𝑉𝑜 8
The average inductor current is equal to:
𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 8 1
𝐼𝐿 = = = 2.96 A
𝑉𝑠 2.7
The changes of the inductor current to have a characteristic of 40% average current is equal to ∆iL=0.4(2.96)=1.19A. Then, the
self-inductance coefficient is equal to:
𝑉𝑠 𝐷 2.7 0.663
𝐿= = = 7.5 μH
Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑓 1.19 200,000
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

By repeating the calculations for Vs=4.2V we have:

𝑉𝑠 4.2 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 8 1
𝐷 =1− =1− = 0.475 𝐼𝐿 = = = 1.90 A
𝑉𝑜 8 𝑉𝑠 4.2

The changes of the inductor current for this state are equal to ∆iL=0.4(1.90)=0.762A.
𝑉𝑠 𝐷 4.2 0.475
𝐿= = = 13.1 μH
Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑓 0.762 200,000
The inductor must be equal to 13.1 μH to fulfill the characteristics in all the range of input voltages.
Using the maximum value of D, the minimum capacitance is obtained as follows:
𝐷 𝐷 0.663
𝐶= = = = 20.7 μF
𝑅 Δ𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 𝑓 𝑉𝑜 Τ𝐼𝑜 Δ𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑜 𝑓 8Τ1 0.02 200,000

The maximum ESR is obtained by using the maximum peak-to-peak change in capacitor current. The peak-to-peak
change of the capacitor current is equal to the maximum current of the inductor. The average inductor current changes
from 2.96A at Vs=2.7V to 1.90A at Vs=4.2V. The change in the inductor current for Vs = 4.2V is equal to 0.762 A.
But for Vs = 2.7V, it must be recalculated using the chosen value of 1/13 μH. As a result, we can write:
𝑉𝑠 𝐷 2.7 0.663
Δ𝑖𝐿 = = = 0.683 A
𝐿𝑓 13.1 10 −6 200,000
 6-2- Boost converter (increase) Boost

Then the maximum inductor current is calculated for each mode as follows:

Δ𝑖𝐿 0.683
𝐼𝐿,max,2.7V = 𝐼𝐿 + = 2.96 + = 3.30 A
2 2
Δ𝑖𝐿 0.762
𝐼𝐿,max,4.2V = 𝐼𝐿 + = 1.90 + = 2.28 A
2 2
These calculations show that the maximum peak-to-peak current changes in the capacitor should be 3.3 A. The
output voltage ripple caused by ESR of the capacitor should not be more than (0.02)(8)=0.16V. Therefore, we
can write:
0.16 V
Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR = Δ𝑖𝐶 𝑟𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿,max 𝑟𝐶 = 3.3𝑟𝐶 = 0.16 V ⇒ 𝑟𝐶 = = 48 mΩ
3.3 A
In practice, a capacitor that has an ESR equal to 48 mΩ or less can have a capacitance value much higher
than the calculated 20.7 μF.
 Inductor Resistance
❑ The induction must be designed to be small resistance to minimize power losses and maximize efficiency. The existence of small
resistance of the induction does not fundamentally change the analysis of the tank converter. However, the inductor's resistance
affects the yield of the boulevard converter, especially in high working periods.
❑ Suppose the induction flow is almost constant. The source flow is equal to the induction current, and the average diode current is
equal to the average load. The power provided by the source must be equal to the capability of absorbing by the load and the
resistance of the induction, with the ignorance of other losses.

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝑟𝐿 =>𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝐷 + 𝐼𝐿2 𝑟𝐿

✓ That rL is an induction series resistance. The diode current, when the key is off, is equal to the induction current, and when the
key is on, it is zero. Therefore, the average diode current is equal to:

𝐼 𝑉 Τ𝑅 𝑉𝑜 𝑟𝐿
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐿 1 − 𝐷 => 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐷 = 𝑜 ⇒ 𝑉𝑠 = + 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷
1−𝐷 1−𝐷
𝑅 1−𝐷
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝐿 1 − 𝐷 + 𝐼𝐿2 𝑟𝐿 => 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑟𝐿
𝑉𝑠 1
𝑉𝑜 = 2 )17-6(
1−𝐷 1 + 𝑟𝐿 Τ 𝑅 1 − 𝐷

✓ It resembles the equation of an ideal converter, but includes a correction factor to consider the resistance of the induction.
47
❑ The induction resistance also affects the converter power efficiency. The efficiency is equal to the output to the output power
ratio. We have a booster converter: 𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑜2 Τ𝑅
𝜂= =
𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃loss 𝑉𝑜2 Τ𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿2 𝑟𝐿
𝑉𝑜2 Τ𝑅 1
𝜂= = 𝑟𝐿
2Τ 𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑅
2
1 + )18-6(
𝑉𝑜 𝑅 + 1 − 𝐷 𝑟𝐿 𝑅(1 − 𝐷) 2

✓ As the work period increases, the performance of the boost converter decreases.

48

Figure 6-10- Boost Converter with an Ideal Indian: a) Output voltage, b) Boost converter efficiency
 6-3- Buck-Boost Converter

❑ In the Buck-Boost Converter , the booster output voltage of the Buck-Boost Converter can be higher or
lower than the input voltage.

Figure 6-11- Buck and Boost Converter:

a) Circuit, to) the equivalent circuit for
the key mode, c) the equivalent circuit
for the key mode.

49
 6-3- Buck-Boost Converter

❑ Closed Key Mode Analysis: When the key is closed, the voltage of the two ends is equal to:

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖 𝑉 Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠

𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐿 => 𝐿 = 𝑠=> = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 Δ𝑡 𝐷𝑇 𝐿

𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇
Δ𝑖𝐿 closed =
𝐿

✓ The rate of induction current changes is a constant value that indicates the linear
increase in the induction current.

❑ Key mode Analysis: When the key is open, the current in the induction cannot change suddenly, which causes the diode to
biased directly and the flow into the resistance and capacitor.

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑜 Δ𝑖𝐿 Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑜

𝑣𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿 => = => = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 Δ𝑡 1−𝐷 𝑇 𝐿

𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 𝑇
Δ𝑖𝐿 open =
𝐿
 6-3- Buck-Boost Converter
❑ For the performance of the steady mode, the induction flow changes must be zero. So you can write:
𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 𝑇
Δ𝑖𝐿 closed + Δ𝑖𝐿 open =0⇒ + =0
𝐿 𝐿
𝐷 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠 =>𝐷 = )19-6(
1−𝐷 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑜
✓ On the other hand, the average voltage of the induction is zero for alternating performance. As a result:
𝐷
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 + 𝑉𝑜 1 − 𝐷 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠
1−𝐷

Figure 6-12- Buck-Boost

Converter Scholars: a) the flow
of induction, b) the voltage of the
induction, c) the diode current, d)
the capacitor flow.
 6-3- Buck-Boost Converter

❑ The absorption capacity by the load must be equal to the amount provided by the source, which can be written:

𝑉𝑜2
𝑃𝑜 = = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑜2
𝑅 => = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝐿 𝐷
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑅

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝐿 𝐷
✓ By replacing the VO instead of IL:
𝑉𝑜2 𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑠 𝐷
𝐼𝐿 = = = 2
)20-6(
𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐷 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 𝑅 1 − 𝐷
❑ The maximum and minimum currents of the inductor are obtained using the average value and the
change values ​in the current:
Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇
𝐼max = 𝐼𝐿 + = 2+ )21-6(
2 𝑅 1−𝐷 2𝐿

Δ𝑖𝐿 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇
𝐼min = 𝐼𝐿 − = 2 − 2𝐿 )22-6(
2 𝑅 1−𝐷
❑ For continuous current, the inductor current must remain positive. To determine the limit between continuous and discrete current, Imin
is set equal to zero and as a result we have: 2
1−𝐷 𝑅
1 − 𝐷 2𝑅 𝐿min = )23-6(
𝐿𝑓 min = 2𝑓
2
 6-3- Buck-Boost Converter

Output Voltage Ripple

❑ The output voltage ripple for the buck and boost converter is calculated from the capacitor current waveform.

𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝐷𝑇 𝑉𝑜 𝐷
∆𝑄 = 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐶Δ𝑉𝑜 =>Δ𝑉𝑜 = =
𝑅 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝑓

Δ𝑉𝑜 𝐷
= )24-6(
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑓

✓ Like other converters, the equivalent series resistance of the capacitor can play an important role in the output
voltage ripple. The peak-to-peak change in the capacitor current is equal to the maximum inductor current.

Δ𝑉𝑜,ESR = Δ𝑖𝐶 𝑟𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿,max 𝑟𝐶 )25-6(

 Buck-Boost Converter Example

The buck-boost circuit has these parameters:

𝑉𝑠 = 24 V,𝐷 = 0/4,R = 5 Ω,𝐿 = 20μH,𝐶 = 80 μF,𝑓 = 100 kHz

Determine the output voltage, inductor current average, maximum and minimum values, and the output voltage ripple:

◼Solution
Output voltage is 𝐷 0.4
𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠 = −24 = −16 V
1−𝐷 1 − 0.4
Inductor current is described by 𝑉𝑠 𝐷 24 0.4
𝐼𝐿 = 2
= 2
= 5.33 A
𝑅 1−𝐷 5 1 − 0.4
𝑉𝑠 𝐷𝑇 24 0.4
Δ𝑖𝐿 = = = 4.8 A
𝐿 20 10 −6 100,000
Δ𝑖𝐿 4.8 Δ𝑖𝐿 4.8
𝐼𝐿,max = 𝐼𝐿 + = 5.33 + = 7.33 A 𝐼𝐿,min = 𝐼𝐿 − = 5.33 − = 2.93 A
2 2 2 2
Continuous current is verified by Imin > 0
Output voltage ripple is Δ𝑉𝑜 𝐷 0.4
= = = 0.01 = 1%
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝐶𝑓 5 80 10 −6 100,000
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