Analog and Digital Data transmission: Transmission is the method by

which computer networks send electrical signals. Data communication is concerned with the
process of exchanging data electronically between two communication devices. In a local area
network, all communication functions are performed through direct cables. Computers located
far away are connected through a special form of data communication link. The existing
telephone or telegraphic network may also be used for connecting computers located at remote
locations. Two types of signals are widely used for transmission. They are

 Analog signals
 Digital signals

Analog Signal Transmission: The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives
information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are continuous. Analog data, such
as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values. When someone speaks, an
analog wave is created in the air. An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a
period of time. As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an
infinite number of values along its path as it can be seen in the figure below. A simple analog
signal is a sine wave that cannot be further decomposed into simpler signals.

A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:

1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Peak Amplitude: Amplitude is a signal's strength and can be visualized as the height of the
signal. Therefore, the higher the amplitude the "louder" the signal. The amplitude of a signal is
the absolute value of its intensity at time t. The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value
of the highest intensity. The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the energy carried by the
signal.

Frequency: Frequency is the rate at which a signal changes per second and is typically
measured in hertz (Hz). Therefore, if a signal has a frequency of 100 Hz, it changes at a rate of
100 times per second. This rate of change is also referred to as the number of cycles per second.
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the wave in one second. Period refers to
the time taken by the wave to complete one second.

Phase: Phase describes the position of the waveform with respect to time. It is measured in
degrees or radian.
Digital Data: Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. For example, a digital
clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06. Digital data
takes on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and
1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission
across a medium.

Periodic & Non Periodic Signals: Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called
Periodic Signals. Signals which do not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Non-
Periodic Signals. In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and non-
periodic digital signals.

BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)

It is the time required to send one bit. It is measured in seconds.

BIT RATE: It is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as bits per second
(bps). Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows Bit rate = 1 / Bit interval.

Baud Rate: It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e. the rate at which the signal changes.

Low pass Channel: This channel has the lowest frequency as 0 and highest frequency as some
non-zero frequency “f1”. This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.
Band pass channel: This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero frequency “f1” and
highest frequency as some non-zero frequency “f2”. This channel can pass all the frequencies in
the range f1 to f2.

Transmission Impairments: In communication system, analog signals travel through

transmission media, which tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal. This imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that received signal is not same as the signal that was
send.

Causes of impairment:

Attenuation: Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That
is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical
energy in the signal is converted to heat. This is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are
used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back. To compensate for
this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Attenuation is measured in terms of Decibels.
The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different
points. Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is
amplified. It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different point.
Attenuation(dB) = 10log10(P2/P1) Variables PI and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1
and 2, respectively. P1 is power at sending end and P2 is power at receiving end. If the strength
of the signal is very low, the signal cannot be detected and interpreted properly at the receiving
end. The signal strength should be sufficiently high so that the signal can be correctly detected
by a receiver in presence of noise in the channel. As shown in Fig below an amplifier can be
used to compensate the attenuation of the transmission line. So, attenuation decides how far a
signal can be sent without amplification through a particular medium.

Distortion: Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a
composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation
speed through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the
period duration.
Noise: Mixed up with the signal, along with the distortion introduced by the transmission media.
Noise can be categorized into the following four types:

 Thermal noise,
 Induced noise
 Crosstalk
 Impulse noise
 Intermodulation Noise

Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and
appliances. These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the
receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna. Cross talk is a result of bunching several
conductors together in a single cable. Signal carrying wires generate electromagnetic radiation,
which is induced on other conductors because of close proximity of the conductors. While using
telephone, it is a common experience to hear conversation of other people in the background.
This is known as cross talk. Intermodulation noise is when more than one signal share a single
transmission medium, intermodulation noise is generated. For example, two signals f1 and f2
will generate signals of frequencies (f1 + f2) and (f1 - f2), which may interfere with the signals
of the same frequencies sent by the transmitter. Intermodulation noise is introduced due to
nonlinearity present in any part of the communication system.

Modulation: Modulation is the addition of information to an electronic or optical carrier signal.

A carrier signal is one with a steady waveform -- constant height (amplitude) and frequency.
Information can be added to the carrier by varying its amplitude, frequency and phase.
Modulation technique is used to change the signal characteristics. Basically, the modulation is of
following two types:

 Analog Modulation
 Digital Modulation
Analog Modulation: In analog modulation, analog signal (sinusoidal signal) is used as a carrier
signal that modulates the message signal or data signal. The general function Sinusoidal wave’s
is shown in the figure below, in which, three parameters can be altered to get modulation – they
are amplitude, frequency and phase; so, the types of analog modulation are:

Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation was developed in the beginning of the 20th century. It was the earliest
modulation technique used to transmit voice by radio. This type of modulation technique is used
in electronic communication. In this modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the message signal, and other factors like phase and frequency remain constant.
The amplitude of modulating signal (analog data) is multiplied by the amplitude of carrier
frequency, which then reflects analog data. The frequency and phase of carrier signal remain
unchanged. This type of modulation requires more power and greater bandwidth; filtering is very
difficult. Amplitude modulation is used in computer modems, VHF aircraft radio, and in portable
two-way radio
Frequency Modulation

In this modulation technique, the frequency of the carrier signal is modified to reflect the
change in the voltage levels of the modulating signal (analog data). The amplitude and phase of
the carrier signal are not altered.

Phase Modulation: Generally, phase modulation is used for transmitting waves. It is an essential
part of many digital transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies like
GSM, WiFi, and satellite television.
In the modulation technique, the phase of carrier signal is modulated in order to reflect the
change in voltage (amplitude) of analog data signal.

Phase modulation is practically similar to Frequency Modulation, but in Phase modulation

frequency of the carrier signal is not increased. Frequency of carrier is signal is changed (made
dense and sparse) to reflect voltage change in the amplitude of modulating signal.

Therefore, Analog modulation includes AM, FM and PM and these are more sensitive to noise.
If noise enters into a system, it persists and gets carried up to the end receiver. So, this drawback
can be overcome by the digital modulation technique.

Digital Modulation (Digital Data to analog signals) For a better quality and efficient
communication, digital modulation technique is employed. DM stands for Digital Modulation
and is a generic name for modulation techniques that uses discrete signals to modulate a carrier
wave. The main advantages of the digital modulation over analog modulation include available
bandwidth, high noise immunity and permissible power. The most important digital modulation
techniques are based on keying such as

 Amplitude Shift Keying

 Frequency Shift Keying
 Phase Shift Keying

Figure below shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-analog
modulating process, and the resultant analog signal.
A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and phase. When we vary
anyone of these characteristics, we create a different version of that wave. So, by changing one
characteristic of a simple electric signal, we can use it to represent digital data. Any of the three
characteristics can be altered in this way, giving us at least three mechanisms for modulating
digital data into an analog signal: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK),
and phase shift keying (PSK).

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes. Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a different
amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels. This is referred to as binary
amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK). The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the
other is the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency. Figure below gives conceptual views
of binary ASK.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied to represent data. The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of
one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the data element changes. Both
peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent
two or more different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the
phase changes. Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK. The simplest PSK is binary
PSK, in which we have only two signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a
phase of 180°. Figure 5.9 gives a conceptual view of PSK.