1) Define the following terms with example.

a) String
b) Alphabet
c) Language
d) DFA
e) NFA
f) ɛ-NFA
g) ɛ-CLOSURE
h) Powers of an Alphabet
i) Equivalent states
j) Distinguishable and indistinguishable states

a) String

 Definition: A finite sequence of symbols drawn from an alphabet.

 Example: "programming", "11010", "CATG" are all strings.

b) Alphabet

 Definition: A finite set of distinct symbols.

 Examples:
o Binary alphabet: {0, 1}
o English alphabet: {a, b, c, ..., z}
o DNA alphabet: {A, C, G, T}

c) Language

 Definition: A set of strings (possibly infinite) that adhere to specific patterns or rules.
 Examples:
o The language of all valid Python programs.
o The language of all English sentences.
o The language of all strings over {0, 1} having an even number of 0s.

d) DFA (Deterministic Finite Automaton)

 Definition: A type of finite automaton where each state has exactly one unique
transition for each input symbol.
 Example: A DFA that accepts all binary strings ending in "01".
 e) NFA (Nondeterministic Finite Automaton)

 Definition: A type of finite automaton where a state can have multiple transitions for the
same input symbol, or even no transitions for a given symbol.
 Example: An NFA that accepts strings containing either "00" or "11".

f) ε-NFA (NFA with epsilon transitions)

 Definition: An NFA that allows transitions on the empty symbol (ε), meaning it can
move between states without consuming input.
 Example: An ε-NFA that accepts strings starting with "a" followed by any number of
"b"s.

g) ε-CLOSURE (epsilon closure)

 Definition: The set of all states reachable from a given state in an NFA by following
zero or more ε-transitions.
 Example: If state q0 has ε-transitions to q1 and q2, then ε-CLOSURE(q0) = {q0, q1,
q2}.

h) Powers of an Alphabet

 Definition: The set of all possible strings that can be formed using the symbols of the
alphabet. This includes the empty string (ε).
 Example: If Σ = {a, b}, then the power set of Σ includes {ε, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, ...}.

i) Equivalent States

 Definition: Two states in a DFA are equivalent if, starting from either one, they lead to
the same set of accepting states for all possible input strings.
 Example: In a DFA that accepts even-length strings, any two states that represent
"even number of symbols read" are equivalent.

j) Distinguishable and Indistinguishable States

 Distinguishable States: Two states are distinguishable if there exists at least one input
string that leads to different outcomes (one accepting, one rejecting).
 Indistinguishable States: Two states are indistinguishable if there's no input string that
can lead them to different outcomes. Indistinguishable states are essentially equivalent.
 2) Explain the differences between DFA and NFA
:Feature DFA NFA

Determinism Deterministic Nondeterministic

ε-Transitions Not Allowed Allowed

Transitions per Symbol Exactly one Zero, one, or multiple

Acceptance Reaches accepting state At least one path to accepting state

Complexity Simpler More complex

Conversion Possible (subset of NFA) Not always possible to DFA

3) Explain the various phases of compiler and show the output of each
phase for the expression position=initial + rate * 60
A compiler goes through several phases to translate human-readable code into
machine code the computer understands. Here's a breakdown of the phases with the
example position = initial + rate * 60:
1. Lexical Analysis (Scanner):
 Input: position=initial + rate * 60
 Output: A list of tokens (keywords, identifiers, operators, constants).
 Token | Value
 -----------|----------
 IDENTIFIER | position
 OPERATOR | =
 IDENTIFIER | initial
 OPERATOR | +
 IDENTIFIER | rate
 OPERATOR | *
 CONSTANT | 60
 SEMICOLON | ;

2. Syntax Analysis (Parser):

 Input: List of tokens from the lexical analysis.
 Output: A parse tree representing the grammatical structure of the expression.

The parse tree shows how the tokens relate to each other and confirms the expression
follows the expected syntax (assignment statement).

3. Semantic Analysis:
 Input: Parse tree from the syntax analysis.
 Output: An enriched parse tree with additional information like data types and type
checking.
o Performs type checking (ensuring position, initial, and rate are compatible for
addition and multiplication).
o Might assign data types to variables if not explicitly declared.
4. Intermediate Code Generation (optional):
 Input: Enriched parse tree from the semantic analysis.
 Output: An intermediate representation of the code, often in a three-address code
format.
o Three-address code explicitly shows operands and the result for each operation:
o t1 = rate * 60 // Temporary variable t1 holds the result
o t2 = initial + t1 // Temporary variable t2 holds the final sum
o position = t2 // Assigns the final value to position

5. Code Generation:
 Input: Intermediate code (or the parse tree if no intermediate code generation phase).
 Output: Machine code instructions specific to the target processor.
o Translates the intermediate code (or directly translates the parse tree) into assembly
language or machine code the target processor can understand.

4) Explain the different phases of a compiler with an example

A compiler takes human-readable source code and transforms it into machine code
understandable by the computer. This multi-step process involves several phases, each
focusing on a specific task. Let's explore these phases with an example:

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanner):

 Imagine you're a librarian sorting books by category.
 Input: Source code as a stream of characters (e.g., a = b + c * 2;).
 Output: A stream of tokens, which are the basic building blocks of the code. Tokens
include keywords (like if, else), identifiers (variable names like a, b, c), operators (+, -,
*, /), and punctuation marks (;).
Example:
Source code: a = b + c * 2;
Tokens: identifier (=) identifier (+) identifier (*) constant (;)

2. Syntax Analysis (Parser):

 Think of this as checking if the books are arranged on the shelf according to
grammar rules.
 Input: The stream of tokens from lexical analysis.
 Output: A parse tree that represents the grammatical structure of the code. The parse
tree shows how the tokens connect and verifies if the code follows the language's
syntax rules.
Example (Parse Tree):
=
/ \
a +
/ \
b *
/ \
c 2

3. Semantic Analysis:
 Imagine a librarian ensuring each book belongs to the correct section (data type).
 Input: The parse tree from the syntax analysis phase.
 Output: An enriched parse tree with additional information like data types and type
checking.
o Semantic analysis verifies if the operations are valid for the data types involved (e.g.,
adding integers makes sense, but adding an integer and a string doesn't).
o It might also perform additional checks like identifying unused variables or undeclared
variables.
4. Intermediate Code Generation (Optional):
 Consider this a simplified version of the book arrangement for easier processing.
 Input: The enriched parse tree from semantic analysis.
 Output: An intermediate representation of the code, often in a format easier to translate
to machine code. This might be a three-address code where each line assigns a value
or performs an operation (e.g., t1 = b + c; t2 = t1 * 2; a = t2;).
5. Code Generation:
 This is like translating the simplified book arrangement into the specific language
each shelf understands.
 Input: The intermediate code (or the parse tree if no intermediate generation phase
exists).
 Output: Machine code instructions specific to the target processor (e.g., x86, ARM).
This is the final code the computer can execute.

5) With a neat diagram explain the language processing system.

Language Processing System
Components:
1. Lexical Analyzer (Scanner):
o Function: Breaks down the source code into a stream of tokens (keywords, identifiers,
operators, constants, etc.).
o Analogy: Like a librarian sorting books by category.
o Example: Input: a = b + c * 2; Output: identifier (=) identifier (+)
identifier (*) constant (;)

2. Syntax Analyzer (Parser):

o Function: Checks if the tokens follow the grammar rules of the programming language,
creating a parse tree.
o Analogy: Like a librarian checking if books are arranged on the shelf according to
grammar rules.
o

o Example (Parse Tree):

o =
o / \
o a +
o / \
o b *
o / \
o c 2

3. Semantic Analyzer:
o Function: Performs semantic checks on the parse tree, verifying data types and
ensuring operations are valid.
o Analogy: Like a librarian ensuring each book belongs to the correct section (data type).
o Example: Checks if adding b (integer) and c (integer) makes sense, but not adding an
integer and a string.
4. Intermediate Code Generation (Optional):
o Function: Creates an intermediate representation of the code, often in a simpler format
for easier translation (e.g., three-address code).
o Analogy: Like creating a simplified version of the book arrangement for easier
processing.
o Example: t1 = b + c; t2 = t1 * 2; a = t2;
5. Code Generator:
o Function: Translates the intermediate code (or parse tree) into machine code specific
to the target processor.
o Analogy: Like translating the simplified book arrangement into the specific language
each shelf understands (machine code).
o Output: Machine code instructions the computer can execute.

MODULE 2

1.Define Regular Expression

A regular expression (often shortened as regex or regexp) is a sequence of
characters that defines a search pattern, primarily for use in text string
matching operations..
2. State and prove Pumping Lemma theorem.