Module 1

Syllabus:

M1.01 Explain the basic concepts of Data communication?

Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers information,
instructions to each other and for sharing resources. Or in other words, communication is a process or
act in which we can send or receive data. (Data can be images, videos, text, files, etc)
A network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another computer.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another. It
could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop,
video camera, or workstation, etc.
Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile, workstation,
etc.
Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium that
connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless
media.
Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to
the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali
writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer connected to
the internet and they are:
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on the source
computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient computer. It also makes
sure that the packets have the information about the source of the message data, the destination of
the message data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the
message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how does computer determine which packet belongs to
which device. What happens if the message you sent to your friend is received by your father? IP is
responsible for handling the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its
proper destination.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from
one device to another. The data communication is divided into three types:
Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional
communication in which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices uses
their entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music
using a speaker, etc.
Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time. When
one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-
talkie.
Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For example,
mobile phones, landlines, etc.

M1.02 Compare types of networks and topology

A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works to share
resources from one computer to another, provided by or located on the network nodes.
Uses of Computer Networks
• Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
• Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
• Sharing files.
• Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
• Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.
Classification of Computer Networks
Computer Networkss are classified based on two criteria.
1. Based on transmission technology
2. Based on Scale(physical size)
1.Based on Transmission Technology: Transmission technology can be
A. Broadcast Links: (used for small network)
A broadcast link is a telecommunications link that allows one node to transmit data to multiple nodes
simultaneously. The network automatically replicates the data to reach all recipients within the
broadcast scope.
Multicast link is a version of broadcasting. Multicast is a method of sending data to multiple recipients
simultaneously. Multicast links are used in network services like IPTV, multimedia conferencing, and
real-time data transmission.
B. Point- to -Point Links: (Used in large network)
A point-to-point (P2P) link is a secure connection that connects two locations directly, without
traversing the public internet. P2P links are also known as private or leased lines.
Unicast is a version of P2P. In unicast link, one-to-one transmission from one point in the network to
another point that is, one sender and one receiver happens.
2.Based on Scale/Size
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
Personal Area Network (PAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
Campus Area Network (CAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person, that is,
communication between the computer devices is centered only on an individual’s workspace. PAN
offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its
transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers
through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies
involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high
with easy maintenance and low cost.
 Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, e

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually
used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it
spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range
from 1km to 5km.
Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects
computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city, town, or
metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from
5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple
buildings, etc.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed
is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.The most common example of
WAN is the Internet.

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

Paramet PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

ers

Personal Campus Metropolita

Full Local Area Wide Area
Area Area n Area
Name Network Network
Network Network Network

Technol Bluetooth, Ethernet & FDDI, CDDi. Leased Line,

Ethernet
ogy IrDA,Zigbee Wifi ATM Dial-Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km

Transmi
ssion Very High Very High High Average Low
Speed

Owners Private or Private or

Private Private Private
hip Public Public

Mainten
Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult
ance

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
3. System-Area Network (SAN)
4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
7. Home Area Network (HAN)

Advantages of Computer Network

Some of the main advantages of Computer Networks are:
•Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily access
and available to everyone.
•Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
•Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in easily
communicating among the organization.
•Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and protection of
information in the system.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networks are:
•Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying them. Viruses
and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
•High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it consists of a lot
of wires and cables along with the device.
•Loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it requires
training for its proper use

Types of Network Topology

In Computer Network, there are various ways through which different components are connected to
one another. Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and how these components are
connected to each other in LAN. In LAN, the physical size is restricted and cables are used to connect
stations based on a topology.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is
referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
Point to Point Topology
Mesh Topology
Star Topology
Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Tree Topology
Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

In the figure, Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known
as links.
Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total number
of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports required
= N * (N-1).
Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Mesh Topology is robust.
The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.
Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
Installation and configuration are difficult.
The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military
communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not
an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect
the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Figure shows A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
The cost of installation is high.
Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers are
connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are
connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single
cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols
are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Figure shows A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols
are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a single
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks. For more,
refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighbouring devices. A number
of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to
send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network. The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology,
the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Figure shows A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing. Token passing: It is a network
access method in which a token is passed from one node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is to
be released for other stations to use.
When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
The data transmission is high-speed.
The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
Cheap to install and expand.
It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
Less secure.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree
Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to
the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is
a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
travelled by the signal to come to the devices.
It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
We can add new devices to the existing network.
Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
The cost is high because of the cabling.
If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the tree is
the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company.
Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes).
The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective
managers and departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.

Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination of all
different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
This topology is very flexible.
The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have a
backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or router.
Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices.
The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology
allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing flexibility and
redundancy within each building.
M1.03 Explain the layered concept of TCP/IP and OSI models
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based
on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP
model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI
model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this article, we’ll study five
layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’
or ‘Network Interface Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The main
condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will receive the
same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final
destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them at the other
end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring from one end to another
end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple
words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail.
UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with another computer. IP is
required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP Model
divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be recombined at the
receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data.
TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into this layer in one
order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
Network/Internet Layer(IP)
Data Link Layer (MAC)
Physical Layer
M1.04 Summarize protocols in TCP/IP protocol suite
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for generating
the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on
the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error
prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible
for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer
are as follows:
IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to
the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and
IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4
addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and
is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from
a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define
the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another
across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify
the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click “send,”
the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the Internet Layer for
routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine
the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then forwarded to the next
hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of the packets have been delivered, your
friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer to
your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route for the
packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the
Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.

4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing
packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is
referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport
layer protocols at this level (UDP).
TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected
by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather
than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte
order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport
little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.

5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to
manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a
combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs
to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH
is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session
over a TCP/IP connection.
NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to
one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following
situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer
reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s
out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is responsible
for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a network. It is also
known as the transport layer.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet Protocols is how the
data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some Common Internet Protocols include:
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and Websites.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent over the Internet.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive data.
ISO-OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization
for Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific
functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person
to another across the globe. The OSI model is a reference framework that explains the process of
transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out
specialised network functions, allowing for a more systematic approach to networking.
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1.Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3.Network Layer
4.Transport Layer
5.Session Layer
6.Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical
connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer
will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which
will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware
Layers.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using
its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in
the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto
the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set
of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.
Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-
layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

Note:
Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination.
This function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note:
Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs
Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also
adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example,
when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data
which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of
the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks
the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
Connection-Oriented Service
Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after
a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
Note:
Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the
Application Layer by making system calls.
The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as
the application Layer”.
Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as
Upper Layers or Software Layers.
Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application
running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user
with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any
secure data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
Encryption/Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted
data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Note:
Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF

Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access
the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of application layer are given below.
Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to access file in a remote
host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or control files from a remote computer.
Mail Services : Provide email service.
Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note:
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late
invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

OSI Model in a Nutshell

Information
Layer Device or
Layer Name Responsibility Form(Data
No Protocol
Unit)
Helps in identifying
Application the client and
7 Message SMTP
Layer synchronizing
communication.
Data from the
application layer is
JPEG,
Presentation extracted and
6 Message MPEG,
Layer manipulated in the
GIF
required format for
transmission.
Establishes
Connection,
Session
5 Maintenance, Ensures Message Gateway
Layer
Authentication, and
Ensures security.
Take Service from
Transport Network Layer and
4 Segment Firewall
Layer provide it to the
Application Layer.
Transmission of data
Network from one host to
3 Packet Router
Layer another, located in
different networks.
Data Link Node to Node Switch,
2 Frame
Layer Delivery of Message. Bridge
Hub,
Establishing Physical
Physical Repeater,
1 Connections between Bits
Layer Modem,
Devices.
Cables

M1.05 Compare TCP/IP and OSI Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

 TCP/IP stands for
OSI stands for Open Transmission Control
Full Form
Systems Interconnection. Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

It is horizontally
Approach It is vertically approached.
approached.
Delivery of the
Delivery of the package is package is not
Delivery
guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP
Model.

Replacement of tools and Replacing the tools is

Replacement changes can easily be done not easy as it is in OSI
in this model. Model.

It is less reliable than It is more reliable than

Reliability
TCP/IP Model. OSI Model.

Happy Learning…………. Thank You………..