Unit 1: Motion

1.1 Introduction:
A. Motion: It is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the change in position of an
object over time. Motion occurs when an object's position changes relative to a reference
point. For an object to be in motion, it must change its position from one place to another.
This change can be measured in terms of displacement or distance. Motion is always
described relative to a chosen reference point or frame of reference. The description of
motion involves both the change in position and the duration over which this change occurs.
Motion is relative, meaning it depends on the observer's point of view. An object might be in
motion relative to one observer but not to another. E.g. If you’re sitting in a stationary car
and another car drives past you, you would observe the second car to be in motion relative
to you. However, if you’re moving in the same direction as the second car at the same speed,
it would appear stationary relative to you.

Types of Motion:

Motion can be classified into several types:

1. Linear Motion: Linear motion refers to the movement of an object along a straight
path. The trajectory of the object is a straight line, and the motion can be described by
its position, speed, and direction in that straight line.
Uniform Linear Motion: When an object moves in a straight line at a constant speed.
The velocity is constant, and there is no acceleration, such type of motion is said to be
Uniform Linear Motion.
Non-Uniform Linear Motion: When the speed or direction of the object changes,
leading to acceleration or deceleration.
Examples of Linear Motion:
a. Free Fall: A dropped ball accelerating due to gravity follows a linear path downwards
if we consider only vertical motion.
b. Car on a Straight Road: A car moving at a constant speed on a straight road exhibits
uniform linear motion.
c. Elevator Moving Up or Down: An elevator traveling in a straight vertical shaft, either
accelerating or decelerating, is an example of non-uniform linear motion.

2. Rotational Motion: It refers to the movement of an object around a fixed point or

axis. Unlike linear motion, where an object moves along a straight path, rotational
motion involves the object spinning or rotating around a central axis.

Examples of Rotational Motion:

a. Spinning Top: A top spinning around its central axis is a classic example of rotational
motion.
b. Earth's Rotation: The Earth's daily rotation around its axis results in day and night.
c. Wheels and Gears: Wheels on vehicles and gears in machinery rotate around their
respective axes.
d. Planets Orbiting the Sun: While the planets follow elliptical paths, their rotational
motion around their own axes is a key part of their movement.

3. Translational Motion: It refers to the movement of an object where every part of the
object moves in the same direction and distance at the same time. This type of motion
involves a change in the object's position relative to a reference point, and it can be in
any direction straight or curved.
Examples of Translational Motion:
a. A Car Moving in a Straight Line: The entire car moves forward or backward, with all
parts of the car moving uniformly along the same path.
b. A Falling Object: An object dropped from a height experiences translational motion as
it moves downward due to gravity.
c. A Person Walking: As a person walks across a room, the entire body moves in a
straight or curved path, depending on the direction.

B. Displacement: It is a vector quantity that describes the change in position of an object.

It measures the shortest distance from the initial position to the final position of the
object and includes a direction.
Characteristics of Displacement:

a. Vector Quantity: Displacement has both magnitude and direction. This distinguishes
it from distance, which is a scalar quantity that only measures the length of the path
travelled.

b. Shortest Path: Displacement represents the straight-line distance between the

starting point and the ending point, not the total path length travelled.

c. Direction: Displacement indicates the direction in which the object has moved from
its initial position. This direction is often described relative to a reference frame or
coordinate system.

Examples of Displacement:

a. Straight Line Motion: If a car moves from point A (at coordinates (1, 2)) to point B
(at coordinates (4, 6)), the displacement is the vector difference between these two
points.
b. Circular Path: If a person walks in a circular path and returns to the starting point,
the total displacement is zero because the initial and final positions are the same.

Position-Time Graph: Displacement is represented by the change in position on a

position-time graph. The slope of this graph indicates velocity, and the change in position
from start to end represents displacement.

Applications:

a. Navigation: Displacement helps in determining the shortest path between two

locations.
b. Physics and Engineering: Calculating displacement is crucial for analysing motion,
forces, and designing mechanisms.
c. Everyday Life: Understanding displacement is useful for activities such as planning
travel routes and assessing physical movement.

C. Velocity: It refers to the rate at which an object changes its position in a specific
direction. It is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude (speed) and direction.
velocity is often represented as:

Displacement
Velocity=
Time

𝑑𝑥
i.e. 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡

where displacement is the change in position of the object in a specific direction.

Characteristics of velocity:

a. Vector Quantity: Velocity is a vector, meaning it has both magnitude (how fast
something is moving) and direction (the direction in which it is moving).
b. Direction: The direction of velocity is crucial. Two objects moving at the same speed
but in opposite directions have different velocities.
c. Magnitude: The magnitude of velocity is the speed of the object, which is the distance
travelled per unit of time.
d. Units: The SI unit of velocity is meters per second (m/s), but it can also be expressed
in other units like kilometres per hour (km/h) or miles per hour (mph),

Types of velocity: Velocity can be categorized into different types based on how it's
measured or observed.

1. Uniform Velocity

Definition: When an object covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time,

regardless of the duration of the interval, it is said to have uniform velocity.

Example: A car moving in a straight line at a constant speed of 60 km/h.

2. Variable Velocity

Definition: When an object covers unequal displacements in equal intervals of time,

or when the direction of motion changes, the object has variable velocity.

Example: A car speeding up and slowing down while traveling through city traffic.
3. Average Velocity:

Definition: The total displacement divided by the total time taken. It gives the overall
change in position per unit time, considering the entire journey.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Average Velocity =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
4. Instantaneous Velocity

Definition: The velocity of an object at a specific moment in time. It represents how

fast the object is moving and in what direction at that precise instant.

Example: The reading on a car's speedometer at any given moment represents the
car's instantaneous velocity.

C. Acceleration:

It refers to the rate at which an object's velocity changes over time. It is a vector
quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. When an object speeds up, slows
down, or changes direction, it is accelerating. Acceleration is typically measured in
meters per second squared (m/s²). The formula for acceleration aaa is given by:

𝛥𝑣
a=
𝛥𝑡

Where, Δ𝑣 is the change in velocity & Δt is the time over which the change occurs

For example, if a car increases its speed from 0 to 60 km/h in 5 seconds, it's experiencing
acceleration.

There are different types of acceleration:

1. Positive Acceleration: When an object's speed increases.

2. Negative Acceleration (Deceleration): When an object's speed decreases.

D. Force: It is a fundamental concept in physics that describes an interaction that causes

an object to change its motion, such as speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction.
Force is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
 The most common way to describe force is through Newton's Second Law of Motion,
which states:

F=ma

Where:
• F is the force applied to an object,
• m is the mass of the object,
• a is the acceleration produced by the force.
Force is measured in newtons (N) in the International System of Units (SI). One newton
is defined as the amount of force required to accelerate a one-kilogram mass by one meter
per second squared (1 N=1 kg⋅m/s2).

1.2: Fundamental Forces in Nature:

a. Gravitational Force: The force of attraction between two objects with mass or
energy. It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces but has an infinite range.
Properties of gravitational forces:
1. Gravitational force is a universal force that acts between any two masses in the
universe, regardless of their size, distance, or composition. Every object with
mass exerts a gravitational pull on every other object with mass.
2. Gravitational force is always attractive. It pulls objects toward each other
rather than pushing them apart. There is no known repulsive gravitational
force.
3. The magnitude of the gravitational force between two objects is directly
proportional to the product of their masses. This means that as the mass of
either object increases, the gravitational force between them also increases.
4. The gravitational force decreases with the square of the distance between the
centres of two objects. This relationship is described by the inverse square
law: as the distance between two objects increases, the gravitational force
𝑚1 𝑚2
between them decreases rapidly. F=G , Where: F is the gravitational
𝛾2

force between the two masses, G is the gravitational constant (6.67430×10-

 11 m3. kg-1 s-2), m1, m2 are the masses of the two objects, r is the distance
between the centres of the two masses.
5. Gravitational force acts over large distances, meaning its effects are significant
even over vast astronomical distances, such as between planets, stars, and
galaxies.
6. Gravitational force is a conservative force, meaning the work done by gravity
on an object moving between two points is independent of the path.

b. Electromagnetic Force: The force that acts between charged particles, such as
protons and electrons. It is responsible for holding atoms and molecules together and
is the force behind light and radiation.
Properties of Electromagnetic forces:
1. Electromagnetic forces act between particles that have an electric charge.
These forces can either be attractive or repulsive, depending on the charges
involved: Like charges (both positive or both negative) repel each other.
Opposite charges (one positive and one negative) attract each other.
2. Electromagnetic forces have two components: electric forces and magnetic
forces. Electric forces result from the interaction between static or stationary
electric charges. Coulomb's law describes this force, stating that the electric
force between two charges is proportional to the product of the magnitudes of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Magnetic forces arise when electric charges move (i.e., when there is an
electric current). A moving charge or a current generates a magnetic field, and
this field can exert a force on other moving charges or currents.
3. Like gravitational forces, electromagnetic forces obey an inverse square law
𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
for point charges. According to Coulomb's law: 𝐅 = 𝐤 , Where: F is the
𝛄𝟐

magnitude of the force between two charges, k is Coulomb's constant

(8.9875×109 N⋅m2 /C2 ), q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges, r is the
distance between the charges.
 4. Electromagnetic forces, like gravitational forces, have an infinite range.
However, the force's magnitude decreases with distance, following the inverse
square law. This means the force becomes weaker as the distance between the
charges increases.
5. Electromagnetic forces are governed by the principles of relativity, meaning
that changes in an electromagnetic field propagate at the speed of light. This is
why electromagnetic waves, such as light, travel at this constant speed in a
vacuum.
6. Electromagnetic forces are the foundation of electromagnetic radiation,
including visible light, radio waves, microwaves, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Electromagnetic waves are created when electric charges accelerate,
producing oscillating electric and magnetic fields that propagate through
space.

c. Strong Nuclear Force: The force that holds quarks together inside protons and
neutrons and holds these particles together inside atomic nuclei. It is the strongest of
the four fundamental forces but has a very short range.
Properties of Strong Nuclear forces:
1. The strong nuclear force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces,
significantly stronger than gravitational, electromagnetic, and weak nuclear
forces. It is approximately 100 times stronger than the electromagnetic force and
many orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force. This immense
strength allows it to overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between positively
charged protons within an atomic nucleus.
2. The strong nuclear force is a short-range force, meaning it only acts over distances
on the order of a femtometre (1 femtometre = 10-15 meters), which is roughly the
size of an atomic nucleus. Beyond this range, the strong force rapidly decreases in
strength and becomes negligible.
3. Within its effective range, the strong nuclear force is highly attractive. It pulls
protons and neutrons together, counteracting the electromagnetic repulsion
between protons and allowing stable atomic nuclei to exist.
 4. When nucleons are extremely close together, the strong nuclear force becomes
repulsive.
5. The strong nuclear force is charge-independent, meaning it acts equally on all
nucleons, regardless of whether they are protons or neutrons. This property
ensures that the force binds all combinations of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus with nearly the same strength.
6. The strong nuclear force is responsible for the nuclear binding energy, the energy
required to hold the nucleus together. This energy is a measure of the stability of
a nucleus.
d. Weak Nuclear Force: The force responsible for certain types of radioactive decay,
where a nucleus emits particles to become more stable. It is weaker than the strong
nuclear force but stronger than the gravitational force.
e. Properties of d. Weak Nuclear Force:
1. The weak nuclear force has an extremely short range, acting over distances
smaller than 10-18 meters, which is much shorter than the size of a typical atomic
nucleus.
2. The weak nuclear force is responsible for certain types of particle decay processes,
such as beta decay in atomic nuclei.
3. The weak nuclear force is actually stronger than gravity at the scale of subatomic
particles, but it is much weaker than the strong nuclear force and electromagnetic
force.
4. The weak nuclear force is a part of the electroweak interaction, a unified
description of the weak force and the electromagnetic force.
5. The weak nuclear force plays a critical role in nuclear fusion reactions that power
stars, including the Sun.
1.3: Newton’s laws and Its applications:

A. Newton’s First law of Motion: Newton's First Law of Motion, also known as the Law of
Inertia, states that:

"An object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion with
a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force."

Important Points of Newton's First Law of Motion:

1. Inertia: The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion is called
inertia. Newton's First Law explains this concept: objects with more mass have more
inertia and require more force to change their state of motion.

2. State of Rest or Uniform Motion:

o An object at rest will stay at rest unless a force acts on it. For example, a book
lying on a table will remain there until someone moves it or another force, such
as a gust of wind, pushes it.

o An object in uniform motion (moving at a constant speed in a straight line) will

continue to move in that state unless a force causes it to accelerate, decelerate,
or change direction. For example, a hockey puck sliding on ice will keep moving
in the same direction and at the same speed until friction or another force, like
a player's stick, changes its motion.

3. External Force: For an object's motion to change, an external force must be applied.
This force can be anything from friction, gravity, air resistance, a push, or a pull. The
absence of an external force means there will be no change in motion.

4. Reference Frame: Newton's First Law is valid in an inertial reference frame, which is
a frame of reference that is not accelerating. In such a frame, objects either remain at
rest or move at a constant velocity when no net external force is acting on them.
Example:

1. A Car at Rest: A car parked on a flat road remains at rest because the forces acting on
it (gravity pulling it down and the normal force of the ground pushing it up) are
balanced, and no unbalanced external force is acting to move the car.

2. A Moving Ball: A ball rolling on a frictionless surface will continue to roll in a straight
line at a constant speed indefinitely because there is no external force to change its
state of motion.

3. Passengers in a Bus: If a bus suddenly stops, passengers inside tend to lurch forward.
This is due to their inertia; while the bus stops (due to the force of the brakes), the
passengers inside, who were in motion, tend to stay in motion. Their bodies continue
moving forward until another force (like the seatbelt or the friction between them and
the seat) acts on them to change their state of motion.

B. Newton’s Second law of Motion: Newton's Second Law of Motion provides a quantitative
description of the changes that a force can produce on the motion of an object. It states:

"The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the external force acting on it

and inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the applied force."

Mathematically, Newton's Second Law is often written as, F=ma

where: F is the net external force acting on the object (in Newtons, N), m is the mass of the
object (in kilograms, kg), a is the acceleration of the object (in meters per second squared,
m/s²).

Important Points of Newton's Second Law of Motion:

1. According to the Second Law, the acceleration of an object increases as the net force
acting on it increases. If you double the net force, the acceleration doubles, assuming
the mass stays constant.
2. The law also states that acceleration is inversely proportional to the object's mass. If
you apply the same force to two objects of different masses, the object with less mass
 will have a greater acceleration. For example, a lighter object will accelerate more than
a heavier object if both are pushed with the same amount of force.
3. Newton's Second Law applies to the net external force, which is the vector sum of all
forces acting on an object. If multiple forces act on an object, they are combined to
produce a net force that determines the object's acceleration.
4. The direction of the acceleration of an object is the same as the direction of the net
external force acting on it. This vector nature means both magnitude (how much) and
direction (which way) are essential in describing motion.

Example:

1. When you push a shopping cart, you apply a force to it. If the cart is empty (less mass),
it accelerates more easily. However, if the cart is full of groceries (more mass), the
same applied force results in less acceleration.
2. When a driver applies brakes, a force is exerted to slow down the car. If the car is
heavily loaded (more mass), it requires a greater braking force to achieve the same
acceleration (deceleration) compared to an empty car.
3. When you throw a ball, the force you apply causes it to accelerate. A lighter ball (less
mass) will accelerate more and be thrown faster than a heavier ball (more mass) if
the same amount of force is applied.

C. Newton’s Third law of Motion: It States that,

"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."

This law means that forces always occur in pairs. When one object exerts a force on a second
object, the second object exerts an equal but oppositely directed force on the first object.

Important points of Newton's Third Law of Motion:

1. Newton's Third Law describes the interaction between two objects. When object A
exerts a force on object B (the action), object B simultaneously exerts a force on object
A (the reaction). These forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
2. These action-reaction force pairs act on different objects, not on the same object.
 3. The forces are equal in size, meaning that the magnitude of the force exerted by object
A on object B is the same as the force exerted by object B on object A. However, these
forces act in opposite directions.
4. Even though the forces are equal and opposite, they do not cancel each other out
because they act on different objects. This can result in different accelerations of the
objects, depending on their masses.
5. Newton's Third Law is closely related to the conservation of momentum. In any
interaction, the total momentum of the system (both objects) remains constant if no
external forces act on the system.

Examples:

1. When you walk, your foot pushes backward against the ground (action force), and the
ground pushes your foot forward (reaction force). This reaction force propels you
forward, allowing you to walk.
2. When a swimmer pushes against the water with their hands and feet (action force),
the water pushes back against them with an equal and opposite force (reaction force).
This propels the swimmer forward through the water.
3. A rocket's engines expel gas molecules downward (action force). According to
Newton's Third Law, the expelled gas exerts an equal and opposite force on the rocket
(reaction force), pushing it upward. This is how rockets are propelled into space.
4. When a gun is fired, the bullet is pushed forward out of the barrel (action force). At
the same time, the gun experiences a backward force (reaction force) known as recoil.
This is why a gun kicks back when it is fired.

1.4: Limitations of Newton's laws of motion:

Newton's laws of motion are fundamental to classical mechanics and have been used
to describe the behaviour of objects for centuries. However, they have limitations and are not
universally applicable in all physical circumstances. Following are some of the limitations of
Newton’s laws of motion:
 1. Newton's laws are only valid in inertial reference frames, which are frames of
reference that are either at rest or moving with constant velocity (i.e., they are not
accelerating). In non-inertial reference frames (such as rotating or accelerating
frames), additional pseudo-forces (like centrifugal and Coriolis forces) must be
introduced to apply Newton's laws, which complicates their application.
2. Newton's laws do not apply accurately when objects move at speeds close to the
speed of light. In such high-velocity situations, relativistic effects become significant.
According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, as an object’s speed approaches the speed
of light, its mass effectively increases, and Newton's Second Law (which assumes
constant mass) no longer accurately predicts the motion. Relativity provides a more
accurate framework for these cases.
3. Newton's laws do not apply at the quantum scale, where the behaviour of particles
is governed by quantum mechanics. At this scale, particles exhibit wave-particle
duality, and their positions and momenta are described by probabilities rather than
definite values.
4. Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation are not adequate
in very strong gravitational fields.
5. Newton’s laws assume that objects can be treated as point masses or rigid bodies, but
they do not directly address the complexities involved with deformable bodies or
objects that change shape.
6. Newton's laws do not inherently account for all types of forces, such as
electromagnetic forces that vary with distance and time, or complex frictional forces
in fluid dynamics.

1.5: Newton’s law of Gravitation:

It states that “every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centres”.

This law is fundamental in understanding how objects with mass interact with each other
due to gravity.
 The mathematical expression for Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation is:

𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2

where: F is the gravitational force between two objects (in Newtons, N), G is the
gravitational constant, approximately 6.674×10−11 Nm2/kg2, m1 and m2 are the masses
of the two objects (in kilograms, kg), r is the distance between the centres of the two
masses (in meters, m).

Characteristics of Newton’s Law of Gravitation:

1. Gravity is a universal force that acts between any two masses, regardless of their size
or location in the universe. It is an attractive force, meaning it always pulls masses
toward each other.
2. The gravitational force between two objects decreases with the square of the distance
between them. This means that if the distance between two objects is doubled, the
gravitational force between them is reduced to one-fourth of its original value. This
inverse-square relationship shows how gravity becomes weaker with increasing
distance.
3. The gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of the two masses
involved. If either mass increases, the gravitational force between the objects also
increases. For instance, if one of the masses is doubled, the gravitational force doubles,
assuming the distance remains constant.
4. The gravitational constant G is a proportionality constant that appears in the equation
of Newton's Law of Gravitation. It provides the necessary scaling factor to calculate the
gravitational force based on the masses of the objects and the distance between them.
5. The gravitational force is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and
direction. The direction of the gravitational force is along the line joining the centers
of the two masses and is always attractive, pulling the two masses toward each other.

Examples of Newton's Law of Gravitation:

1. The law of gravitation explains why planets orbit the Sun. The Sun, having a massive
mass, exerts a gravitational pull on the planets, keeping them in elliptical orbits
 around it. The same principle applies to moons orbiting planets and artificial satellites
orbiting the Earth.
2. When an apple falls from a tree, it is pulled toward the Earth by the Earth's
gravitational force. According to Newton's law, both the apple and the Earth attract
each other. However, due to the vast difference in mass, the apple's acceleration
towards the Earth is noticeable, while the Earth's acceleration towards the apple is
negligible.
3. The gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon causes the tides. The
Moon's gravity pulls on the Earth's oceans, creating bulges of water that we perceive
as high tides.

Importance of Newton's Law of Gravitation: Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation is

crucial in understanding the behaviour of objects under the influence of gravity, from
everyday objects on Earth to celestial bodies in space. It offers a solid foundation for
clarifying:

1. Orbital Mechanics: The motion of planets, moons, and satellites.

2. Gravitational Attraction: The falling of objects towards the Earth.
3. Astronomy: The interaction between stars, galaxies, and other astronomical
phenomena.

1.6: Frame of Reference: A frame of reference is a set of criteria or a point of view that
is used to measure and observe physical phenomena, such as the position, orientation, and
motion of objects. It is essentially a coordinate system or a space in which measurements are
made and observed. A frame of reference is essential for understanding and describing
motion because motion is relative. The state of rest or motion of an object can only be
described with respect to a specific frame of reference.

Types of Frames of Reference:

1. Inertial Frame of Reference: An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either

at rest or moving with a constant velocity (not accelerating). In these frames,
Newton's laws of motion hold true without any modifications.
 n an inertial frame, objects not acted upon by a net external force move in straight
lines with constant speeds. The Earth is often approximated as an inertial frame for
many practical purposes, although it technically isn’t due to its rotation and orbital
acceleration.

2. Non-Inertial Frame of Reference: A non-inertial frame of reference is a frame that

is accelerating, whether in a straight line or rotating. In non-inertial frames, Newton's
laws do not hold unless fictitious forces (also known as pseudo-forces) are
introduced. Examples of non-inertial frames include a car that is accelerating or
braking, a rotating merry-go-round, or a roller coaster loop. In these frames,
passengers might feel forces that appear to have no source, which are explained by
fictitious forces.

Importance of Frames of Reference:

1. The concept of a frame of reference is crucial for understanding relative motion,

which is the idea that the motion of an object is always measured relative to
something else. E.g. a passenger in a moving train might see another train moving and
think it’s moving backward if their own train is moving faster forward. To an observer
standing outside, both trains are moving forward, but at different speeds.
2. The laws of physics are formulated to be the same in all inertial frames of reference.
This principle of relativity ensures that physical laws do not change when observed
from different inertial frames. The development of theories like Einstein's theory of
relativity and classical mechanics depends on this consistency.
3. In problem-solving, choosing the most convenient frame of reference can simplify
calculations. For example, when analysing the motion of a projectile, it’s often easiest
to use a frame of reference in which the ground is at rest.

Examples of Frames of Reference:

1. For most everyday activities, the Earth serves as a convenient and practical frame of
reference. When you throw a ball, drive a car, or fly a plane, we typically measure these
motions relative to the Earth.
 2. Inside a moving train or car, passengers can use the vehicle as their frame of reference.
From this perspective, other objects inside the vehicle may seem stationary or moving
depending on the train's movement. To an observer outside, both the train and objects
inside it are moving relative to the ground.
3. n a rotating merry-go-round, a person can choose the rotating platform as a frame of
reference. In this non-inertial frame, they would need to consider fictitious forces like
the centrifugal force to explain why objects seem to move outward.

1.7: Introduction to classical relativity: Classical relativity, also known as Galilean

relativity, is a concept in physics that deals with how the laws of motion apply in different
reference frames, especially inertial frames of reference, where observers are either at rest
or moving with a constant velocity relative to one another. It is based on the work of the
Italian scientist Galileo Galilei.

Important Concepts of Classical Relativity:

1. Principle of Relativity: The principle of relativity, as formulated by Galileo, states

that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. This means
that no experiment conducted within an inertial frame can detect whether the frame
is at rest or moving at a constant velocity. In other words, there is no absolute rest or
absolute motion, only relative motion. E.g. If two observers are in separate cars
moving at constant velocities relative to the ground, and one car is moving faster than
the other, an observer in each car cannot determine their absolute velocity. They can
only measure their velocity relative to the other car or the ground.
2. Galilean Transformations: Galilean relativity uses Galilean transformations to describe
how coordinates change between different inertial frames of reference. These
transformations assume that time is absolute (the same for all observers) and that space is
Euclidean (obeying the geometry of flat, three-dimensional space).
3. Under Galilean relativity, velocities add linearly. If an object moves with velocity u
relative to one frame and the frame itself is moving with velocity v relative to another
frame, the velocity u′ of the object in the second frame is simply: u′=u+v. E.g. This
 means if you’re on a train moving at 30 km/h and walk forward at 5 km/h relative to
the train, your speed relative to the ground would be 35 km/h.
4. Invariance of Newton’s Laws: Classical relativity maintains that Newton's laws of
motion are valid in all inertial frames. This implies that no inertial frame is preferred
over another, and all observers moving at constant velocities relative to one another
will measure the same forces and accelerations for the same events.

Limitations of Classical Relativity:

a. Classical relativity assumes time is absolute and the same for all observers, regardless
of their state of motion. However, this assumption breaks down at speeds close to the
speed of light. Special relativity, introduced by Einstein, shows that time is relative
and depends on the observer’s frame of reference.
b. When objects move at speeds approaching the speed of light, the Galilean
transformation equations no longer accurately describe their behaviour. Special
relativity’s Lorentz transformations replace Galilean transformations to account for
relativistic effects, such as time dilation and length contraction.
c. Classical relativity does not account for the effects of gravity on space and time.

Applications of Classical Relativity

Despite its limitations, classical relativity provides an excellent approximation for many
practical situations where objects move at speeds much slower than the speed of light. It is
used extensively in:

• Engineering: To design vehicles, structures, and systems that operate at everyday

speeds.

• Astronomy: To predict planetary motions and model celestial mechanics for objects
moving at relatively low velocities compared to the speed of light.

• Everyday Physics: To understand phenomena like projectile motion, collisions, and

dynamics of objects in classical mechanics.
1.8 Problems Solving: