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 Gamma-ray Spectroscopy of Deep Inelastic Reactions
in the Rare Earth Region
by

Stephen John Asztalos

B.S. (University of Wisconsin - M adison) 1982

M.S. (University of Wisconsin - M adison) 1984

A dissertation subm itted in partial satisfaction of the

requirements for the degree of

D octor of Philosophy

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in

Engineering - Nuclear Engineering

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in the
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GRADUATE DIVISION

of the

UNIVERSITY O F CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

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Com m ittee in charge:

Professor Stanley Prussin, Chair

Professor Kenneth Fowler
Professor John 0 . Rasmussen

Spring 1998

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 UMI Number: 9901981

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UMI Microform 9901981

Copyright 1998, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized

copying under Title 17, United States Code.

UMI
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Ann Arbor, MI 48103

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 The dissertation of Stephen John Asztalos is approved:

s h t h g
Chair D ate

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'\ f \ ^ L v y \ A A r g? I
D ate
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University of California, Berkeley

Spring 1998

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 I consider myself fortunate to have a large contingent of supporters and this thesis
is dedicated to my colleagues, friends and family who have helped me get through this
difficult, but rewarding project.
Lawrence Berkeley National L aboratory was a great place to w rite a thesis, especially
because of the opportunity to work in close contact with talented individuals. Among
these, I would like to thank Dr. Paul Fallon for taking the plunge and luring me and
looking out for my best interests.
My friend and officemate Dr. Kai V etter was a source of inspiration through his clear
thinking and hard work ethic. Our discussions were frequently a source of enjoym ent.
Working w ith Dr. I-Yang Lee turned o u t to be one of th e b etter decisions of my graduate

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career. His remarkable insight certainly drove me to think more deeply about th e physics
in this thesis. He also helped keep me focused over the last few years, which was no small
accomplishment. T he remainder of th e high spin group is com m ensurately talented.
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I am indebted to my committee members. It was particularly a pleasure to work with
Dr. John Rasmussen as p art of the GANDS fission collaboration. I can only hope that
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my career should be as varied and interesting as his.
My advice to other students is to choose your graduate advisor before you choose your
field of specialization. I did ju st th a t in selecting my advisor, Dr. S tan Prussin, and
consequently was able to easily surm ount the m ajor hurdles of my graduate career. I
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appreciate his unqualified support of my decision to forego a more traditional nuclear

engineering degree.
A lthough several states away, my family counts among my best support group and I
wish to thank them for their continual love. You all possess m any talents and I won’t be
surprised in the least when someday there axe other doctors in th e family. T hanks a lot
Mom, M aria, Heidi, Allison, Claudia and Brad. I know my D ad would be proud, too.
Dr. M ark Scott listened for w hat m ust have seemed like an eternity about th e ups and
downs of graduate life. I appreciate you being there.
Finally, I w ant to acknowledge my girlfriend Kelly for her six plus years of love and
friendship. She still easily reigns as th e de facto m athem atician in our house.

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 CONTENTS iv

C on ten ts

T itle P a g e i

A p p ro v a l ii

A ck n o w le d g m e n ts ili

1 In tr o d u ctio n 1

1.1 Nuclear R otational Motion ...................................................................................... 1

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1.2 G am m a ray D e te c tio n ................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Deep Inelastic E x p e r im e n ts ......................................................................................

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1.4 A n a ly s is ........................................................................................................................... 5

1.5 R e s u lts .............................................................................................................................. 6

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2 T heory 7

2.1 In tro d u c tio n .................................................................................................................... 7

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2.2 Nuclear M o d e ls .............................................................................................................. 11

2.2.1 Spherical Harmonic O sc illato r........................................................................ 11

2.2.2 Modified Harmonic O sc illa to r....................................................................... 13

2.2.3 Nilsson M o d el.................................................................................................... 15

2.3 Nuclear Models with Pairing ................................................................................... 19

2.4 Nuclear R otations ...........................................................................................................21

2.4.1 Eigenfunctions of th e Particle-plus-Rotor Model .....................................24

2.4.1 . 1 Coriolis Coupling .............................................................................. 26

2.4.1.2 Band Crossing and B ack b e n d in g .................................................... 27

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 CONTENTS v

2.4.2 Applications of the Particle-plus-Rotor M o d e l............................................ 28

2.5 Cranked Shell M o d e l......................................................................................................... 31

2.5.1 Quasi-Particle Transform ation .......................................................................33

3 E x p erim en ta l M eth o d s 38

3.1 C y c lo tr o n .............................................................................................................................38

3.2 G A M M A S P H E R E ............................................................................................................ 39

3.2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 39

3.2.2 GAM M ASPHERE A r r a y .................................................................................40

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3.2.3 Principles of the Germ anium Detector D e s ig n ............................................ 45

3.2.3 .1 G erm anium e l e c tr o n ic s .....................................................................50

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3.2.4 BGO D e s i g n ........................................................................................................ 50
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3.2.4 .1 BGO E le c tro n ic s..................................................................................52

3.2.5 GAM M ASPHERE Electronics .......................................................................52

3.2.5.1 I n tr o d u c tio n ........................................................................................ 52

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3.2.5.1.1 Early Im plem entation D ata Acquisition System . 53

3.2.5.1.2 Final Implementation D ata Acquisition System . . 54

3.2.6 D ata Processing ................................................................................................. 58

3.2.7 C a lib r a tio n ........................................................................................................... 61

3.3 Silicon Strip Detector ..................................................................................................... 62

3.3.1 Silicon Strip E le c tro n ic s .................................................................................... 63

4 E x p erim en ta l T echniques 66

4.1 In tro d u ctio n ......................................................................................................................... 6 6

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 CONTENTS vi

4.2 Deep Inelastic R e a c tio n s................................................................................................ 67

4.2.1 Characteristics of the Deep Inelastic M e c h a n is m .......................................67

4.2.2 Experim ental Evidence for Deep Inelastic R e a c tio n s ................................ 6 8

4.2.3 Angular Momentum Production from Deep Inelastic Reactions . . . 73

4.2.4 Isotope Production from Deep Inelastic Reactions ................................... 74

4.2.5 G am m a Emission from Deep Inelastic R e a c tio n s ....................................... 75

4.3 Deep Inelastic Experiments a t GAMMASPHERE ............................................... 77

4.3.1 Reaction Kinematics and Doppler C orrections..............................................82

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4.3.1.1 Reaction K inem atics........................................................................... 82

4.3.1.2 Doppler C o rre c tio n s........................................................................... 85

4.3.2
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D ata Analysis M e th o d s .....................................................................................8 8

4.3.2 .1 D ata Analysis in One D im ension.................................................... 91

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4.3.2.2 D ata Analysis in Two- and Higher-Folds ................................... 98

4.3.2.3 Cross-gated D ata A n a ly s is ............................................................ 104

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5 E x p erim en ta l R esu lts 107

5.1 In tro d u c tio n .....................................................................................................................107

5.2 Spectroscopic Results ................................................................................................. 108

5.2.1 G ated S p e c t r a .................................................................................................. 108

5.2.1.1 Experiment E I4 1 ............................................................................... 108

5.2. 1 .2 Experiment G S 3 3 ............................................................................ 115

5.2.1.3 Experiment G S 3 4 ............................................................................ 117

5.2.2 Level Schemes .................................................................................................. 117

5.3 Derived R e s u lts .............................................................................................................. 123

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 CONTENTS v ii

5.3.1 M oments of I n e r ti a ............................................................................................. 123

5.3.2 Spin Y i e l d s .......................................................................................................... 127

5.3.3 Isotopic Y i e l d s ....................................................................................................131

5.3.4 Cross-gated Y ie l d s .............................................................................................136

5.3.5 R o u th ia n s ............................................................................................................. 141

5.3.5.1 Features o f Q uasi-Particle Diagrams in th e Rare E arth Re­

gion ....................................................................................................... 145

6 D isc u ssio n 147

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6.1 C haracteristics of Rare E arth N u c l e i ..........................................................................147
6.1.1 Properties at Zero F r e q u e n c y ......................................................................... 147
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6.1.2 Properties Above Zero F re q u e n c y .................................................................. 149

6 .1.2.1 Interaction S t r e n g t h s ..................................................................... 154

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6.2 C haracteristics of Deep Inelastic R e a c tio n s............................................................... 158

6.2.1 Spin Y i e l d s ..........................................................................................................159

6.2.2 P air Transfer C a lc u la tio n s............................................................................... 163

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6.2.3 Isotopic Y i e l d s ................................................................................................... 165

6.3 C o n c lu sio n s ........................................................................................................................ 172

A p p e n d ic e s 175

A G A M M A S P H E R E A n gles 175

B K in e m a tic S o lu tio n s 176

C A n a ly sis U n c erta in tie s 177

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 L IS T OF F IG U R E S v iii

R e fe re n c e s 179

List o f Figures

1 Ix versus u for 168Y b ..................................................................................................... 2

2 Oscillations the interaction strength as a function of neutron number . . . . 3
3 P rolate spheroid of re v o lu tio n ..................................................................................... 8

4 Evolution of nuclear m o d e ls ............................................................................................ 10

5 Evolution of th e simple harmonic oscillator m o d e l.....................................................14
6 Nilsson diagram around neutron number 100 ....................................................... 17

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7 Schematic representation of the pairing force ........................................................... 19
8 A ngular m om entum of a deformed rotating n u c le u s .................................................24
9 The interaction of the ground state band and excited band .................................29
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10 The quasi-particle tran sfo rm a tio n ..................................................................................34
11 GAM M ASPHERE in its final implementation stage ............................................. 41
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12 Concept of resolving p o w e r ............................................................................................44
13 G AM M ASPH ERE efficiency c u r v e .............................................................................. 46
14 Resolution of a HpGe germanium c ry s ta l.....................................................................49
15 The effect of Com pton suppression on a 60Co s o u r c e ............................................. 51
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16 Block diagram of the final implementation d a ta acquisition s y s t e m .................... 55

17 Tim e fram e of a successful GAMMASPHERE event ............................................. 56
18 D ata processing schematic for GAM M ASPHERE .................................................60
19 Schematic of the silicon strip detector e le c tr o n ic s .................................................... 64
20 Elastic scattering in the center-of-m ass........................................................................ 70
21 Double differential cross sections d 2 <r/dEdJ2 for 4 0 A r+ 232T h a t 388 MeV . . 71
22 De-excitation of a nucleus formed in a deep inelastic r e a c t i o n .............................76
23 Schematic diagram of the reaction k in e m a tic s ...........................................................79
24 G am m a-ray yields as a function of silicon strip detector a n g l e .............................80
25 Inelastic transfer as a function of 7 -ray m u ltip lic ity .................................................81
26 Kinem atic solutions for EI41 ........................................................................................ 84

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 L IS T OF F IG U R E S ix

27 Uncorrected and Doppler-corrected to tal projections from EI41............................. 8 6

28 Raw position spectrum for a single phi s e g m e n t........................................................89
29 Total projections from E I 4 1 ............................................................................................93
30 Total projections from G S 3 3 ............................................................................................94
31 Total projections from G S 3 4 ............................................................................................96
32 Total projection, singly- and doubly-gated s p e c t r a ................................................ 102
33 Total projection resulting from a sum of triple gates in four-fold d a ta . . . . 104
34 Cross-gated spectrum from a gate on a transition in 174Y b ..................................105
35 Ground sta te rotational bands in 172 .17 4,i'6Yb fr0m t r i p l e s ..................................110
36 a = l / 2 + signature partner of l73Tm from triples .................................................. I l l

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37 Both signature partners in 173Yb from t r i p l e s ........................................................ 112
38 Both signature partners of 175Yb from t r i p l e s ........................................................113
39 Both signature partners of 1,1 Yb from doubles .................................................... 114
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Ground sta te rotational band in 178Yb from doubles and tr i p le s ....................... 114
41 Ground sta te rotational bands in 172.174,i 76y i ) from t r i p l e s ..................................116
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42 Ground sta te rotational bands in 175Yb from triples ............................................117
43 Ground sta te rotational bands in 152-154Sm from t r i p l e s ..................................... 118
44 Ground s ta te rotational band in 152Sm from d o u b le s ............................................119
45 a = l / 2 + signature partner of 153Sm from d o u b le s ..................................................120
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46 a = l / 2 ~ signature partner of 153Sm from d o u b le s ..................................................120

47 Ground sta te rotational band in l54Sm from tr ip le s ............................................... 121
48 a = l / 2 + signature partner of 155Sm from d o u b le s .................................................. 121
49 a = l / 2 - signature partner of l55Sm from d o u b le s ..................................................122
50 Ground sta te rotational band in 156Sm from d o u b le s ............................................1 2 2
51 Level schemes for Ytterbium-like nuclei ...................................................................124
52 Level schemes for Samarium-like n u c le i...................................................................... 125
53 Maximum spin versus neutron number for G S 3 4 .................................................. 126
54 Moments o f inertia for Ytterbium-like isotopes (p art 1) ........................................ 128
55 Moments of inertia for Ytterbium-like isotopes (p art 2 ) ........................................ 129
56 Moments of inertia for Samarium-like iso to p es......................................................... 130

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 L IS T O F T A B L E S x

57 Y tterbium spin yields from EI41 and G S 3 3 ............................................................. 132

58 Sam arium spin yield from GS33 and G S 3 4 ................................................................ 133
59 A com parison of Y tterbium and Samarium normalized spin y ie ld s .....................134
60 Isotopic yields from E I4 1 ................................................................................................. 137
61 Isotopic yields from G S 3 3 ..............................................................................................137
62 Isotopic yields from G S 3 4 ..............................................................................................138
63 C ross-gated spectrum showing transitions in 170E r ................................................139
64 C ross-gated spectrum of Samarium-like nuclei from a g ate on 208P b ................. 139
65 C ross-gated yields for G S 3 4 .......................................................................................... 140
66 C ross-gated yields for G S 3 3 .......................................................................................... 141

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67 Spin-spin correlations from GS33 d a t a .......................................................................142
68 C ross-gated yields for EI41 .......................................................................................... 142
69 Experim ental odd-even mass differences for 1 6 2 < N < 1 7 6 ......................................144
70
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Theoretical R outhian for 168Y b ....................................................................................145
71 Experim ental and theoretical Routhians for Ytterbium -like n u c le i.................... 152
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72 Experim ental Routhians for Samarium-like n u c le i...................................................155
73 Theoretical R outhians for Samarium n u c l e i .............................................................156
74 Doppler-corrected 7 -ray spectra from a gate on 180 ................................................161
75 Results of m atrix diagonalization for 176Y b .............................................................166
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76 Results of pair transfer calculation for 174 ’176 ,i78Y b ................................................167

77 Kinem atic solutions for all deep inelastic experim ents..............................................176

List o f Tables

1 C haracteristics of th e germanium crystals in use at G A M M A SPH ER E . . 47

2 Intrinsic an d operational characteristics of the silicon strip d etector . . . . 62
3 C alculated laboratory and center-of-mass grazing a n g l e s ........................................78
4 R atio of two-fold d a ta w ith respect to n-fold d a t a ..................................................... 91
5 Total num ber of unpacked two, three and four-fold e v e n t s ....................................91
6 EI41 sp ectra d a t a .............................................................................................................. 109

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 L IS T O F T A B L E S xi

7 GS33 spectra d a t a .......................................................................................................... 115

8 GS34 spectra d a t a .......................................................................................................... 119
9 Experim ental values relevant to the deep inelastic r e a c tio n s .............................. 136
10 Calculated ground state quadrupole d e fo rm a tio n s.................................................. 148
11 Measured and theoretical ground state band head assignments ........................149
12 Experim ental values for the pairing gap a t zero f r e q u e n c y ................................. 150
13 Deep inelastic experiments a t G A M M A S P H E R E .................................................. 158
14 N /Z ratios and Q-values for the projectile, ta rg e t and compound nucleus . . 168
15 Projectile and recoil velocities in term s of ............................................................ 171
16 T h eta and phi angles for all 110 germ anium positions............................................ 175

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 1

1 Introduction

1.1 N u c le a r R o t a t io n a l M o t io n

Nuclear behavior usually falls somewhere between two extrem e pictures: the shell model
and the collective one. The former is characterized by a nucleon moving independently
in a potential generated by all the other nucleons. T he shell model assigns nucleons well-
defined orbits, which are disrupted only by the presence of residual interactions, such as
pairing, th a t tend to blur the distinction between occupied and unoccupied levels. At
the other extrem e are the collective models, an exam ple of which is the rotating liquid
drop model, where the coherent, collective m otion o f many nucleons generates a rotating

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potential. Low-lying rotational excitations in deformed nuclei typically lie well below the
energy required to promote single nucleons above th e ground state.
The experiments described in this thesis prim arily concern themselves with 7 -ray de­
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excitations from rotational states in neutron-rich rare earth nuclei. Gamma-ray decay from
these states typically occurs via numerous rapid electric quadrupole transitions induced
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by the electric quadrupole moment of the deformed nucleus. For an ideal, deformed
nucleus, rotational energy levels are proportional to 1(1+ 1), where I is the to tal angular
mom entum of the rotating nucleus. This gives rise to a 7 -ray spectrum having equally
spaced peaks. However, in rapidly rotating nuclei, th e interaction between the single­
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particle and rotational motion causes changes in th e single particle motion and, to some
extent, vice-versa. An example of this interplay is th e deviation from a linear relationship
between spin and rotational frequency expected of a rigid ro to r due to the alignment in
angular mom entum of a pair of high-y (e.g., *1 3 / 2 ) (quasi)particles along the rotation axis
by the Coriolis force. Prior to their alignment, the pair is coupled to spin zero due to the
pairing force.
Figure 1 illustrates this interrelationship. The “S” shape of th e curve in this figure
is one example of phenomenon of backbending [JRS71, StS72]. The detailed shape of
the backbending curve depends on th e strength V o f th e interaction between the ground
state band and th e lowest two quasi particle (aligned) band, which in tu rn depends on the
location of th e Fermi surface relative to th a t of th e nearest I 1 3 /2 orbital. In the case of

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 1.1 N u c le a r R o ta tio n a l M o tio n 2

30

25

20
x
15

10

0
0.0 0.1 0.4
0)

Figure 1: A n exam ple o f single-particle coupling to collective m otion. The axes are labeled

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by the projection o f the total angular m om entum along the rotation axis, Ix , versus rota­
tional frequency oj fo r 168 Yb. B y ui = ljc the Coriolis force has succeeded in overcoming the
pairing force and aligns a pair o f high-j neutrons with the rotation axis. The contribution
from the aligned pair to the total angular m om entum is labeled A i. The dashed line is
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an extrapolation o f the aligned band to lower spins. T he sharp kin ks in the graph reflect
discreteness o f interpolations.
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168Yb th e interaction is relatively weak and gives rise to a sharp backbend. One of the main
goals of our deep inelastic experiments is to test the prediction th a t V continues to oscillate
in stren g th as neutrons are added to the i 13/ 2 shell (e.g., N=104 an d above). Oscillatory
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behavior, such as th a t shown in Figure 2, has been dem onstrated in less neutron-rich rare
earth nuclei [BeF79].
In C h ap ter 2 th e evolution of nuclear models, from single-particle m otion in a spherical
potential to m otion in a rotating deformed potential, is described. T he concept of pairing
is introduced there, as is the role it and the Coriolis force play in th e backbending picture.
T he particle-plus-rotor model is presented and several results axe derived from it, including
the B (E 2 ) value representing the probability of 7 -ray decay from excited rotatio n al states.
T he chapter culm inates with a discussion of the cranked shell m odel, which is one of the
theoretical models in use to predict th e effects of rapid rotatio n on th e orbitals of deformed
nuclei.

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 1.2 G a m m a r a y D e te c tio n 3

Neutron number
92 98 104

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Figure 2: A schem atic view o f oscillations in the interaction strength as a function o f the
location o f th e Fermi surface (bottom ) and neutron num ber (top). Peaks in the oscillation
do not necessarily coincide with integer neutron num ber, although over this lim ited region
this approxim ately occurs.
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1 .2 G a m m a ra y D e t e c t io n
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The physics com munity has been sufficiently intrigued by these and other developments
in the field o f high spin nuclear physics th a t it supported, then built one of th e w orld’s most
powerful 7 -ray spectrom eters, GAM M ASPHERE, whose prim ary function is to record the
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greatest num ber of 7 -rays from an event as possible. T he num ber of 7 -rays em itted is the
7 -ray m ultiplicity of th e event, while the num ber detected is referred to as the coincidence
fold of an event. T he larger the fold of an event, th e greater th e number o f conditions th a t
can be placed on it to establish coincidence relationships. To maximize the fold of the
d ata, G A M M A SPH ERE is equipped w ith as m any as 110 high-efficiency, high-resolution
germ anium detectors. Like other light-gathering instrum ents, the concept of resolving
power can be applied to the array. The resolving power of G AM M ASPH ERE is further
improved by th e addition of Compton-suppression elements around each germ anium crys­
tal, whose function is to reject events where incomplete energy deposition has occurred
in the germ anium crystal. W ith these and other im provements G A M M A SPH ERE has
exceeded th e resolving power of the previous generation of arrays by nearly two orders of

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 1.3 D e e p In e la stic E x p e r im e n ts 4

m agnitude.
In C hapter 3 the focus is on 7 -ray detection. The basic principles o f semi-conductor
detector physics are discussed there, and the need for Compton suppression is motivated.
This is followed by a description of the electronics of the detectors themselves and their
integration into the d ata acquisition system, whose prim ary goal is speed and repeatability.
GAM M ASPHERE is designed to accommodate a variety of external detectors, whose
purpose is to provide additional selectivity hence, increased resolving power, for the array.
Integration of the silicon strip detector used for particle detection in th e deep inelastic
experim ents into GAM M ASPHERE is described towards the end of C hapter 3.

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1 .3 D e e p I n e la s t ic E x p e r im e n ts

To advance the systematics of the interaction strength in rare earth nuclei it is nec­
essary to go to neutron-rich nuclei since the lighter isotopes, which are accessible via
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Coulomb excitation and compound nucleus reactions, have largely been studied. Indeed,
until recently, compound nucleus reactions have been the prim ary m ethod of generating
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large am ounts of angular momentum in a nuclear collision. Since th e beam and target
fuse, orbital angular momentum is wholly converted into ro tatio n al angular m om entum of
the compound state. While this reaction mechanism has been used to produce the highest
spins possible, it can not be used to produce nuclei on the neutron-rich side of the Segre
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chart. Another reaction mechanism was needed and deep inelastic reactions seemed like a
n atu ra l candidate. This mechanism has been studied only for a com paratively brief time
com pared to o ther reaction mechanisms. It first manifested itself indirectly by missing
cross section in heavy ion collisions, and later directly, by the absence of quasi-elastic
peaks in few-particle transfer and the appearance of large, broad peaks a t the low-energy
end of particle spectra [GVW70]. The mechanism occurs in a niche of input angular
m om entum values lo-it < I < igTa.z\ intermediate between the lower limit of com pound nu­
cleus form ation and the upper limit for quasi-elastic transfer, respectively. T he fact th a t
deep inelastic reactions have dem onstrated a capacity for substantial energy dissipation
and angular mom entum generation make them ideal for high-spin studies of neutron-rich
nuclei.

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 1.4 A n a lysis 5

This thesis describes three deep inelastic experiments conducted a t GAM M ASPHERE.
The first is EI41 (early implementation), where the reaction was 4 8 C a + 176Yb at 250 MeV.
This was followed by two experiments with GAM M ASPHERE in its final implem entation:
GS33, using 154 S m + l,6 Yb at 949 MeV and GS34, which employed 154 S m + 208Pb at 1 GeV.
These experiments adopted a different approach from most other deep inelastic experi­
ments. R ather th an attem p t accurate energy measurements of the products, our emphasis
lay with good Doppler corrections of the 7 -ray spectra. Thus, high spatial resolution
detection capability of the recoiling particles was necessary to accurately reconstruct the
reaction kinematics. O ur approach had to be compatible w ith th e design of GAMMA­
SPHERE. A small (9.6 cm diameter), highly segmented silicon strip detector was chosen

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to satisfy these criteria. For each of these experiments G AM M ASPH ERE was operated
in a mode th a t required at least two 7 -rays in coincidence with a particle detected a t the
silicon strip detector.
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In C hapter 4 the deep inelastic mechanism, which is com paratively new to the field of
7 -ray spectroscopy, is introduced, as are the kinematic expressions necessary to Doppler-
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correct the 7 -rays em itted by the moving projectile-like and target-like fragm ents. Aspects
of the kinematics as they pertain to particle identification are discussed in detail. Like
a typical GAM M ASPHERE experiment, these experiments produced a large am ount of
d a ta ( ~ 109 events each) and in order to extract meaningful results d a ta reduction and
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analysis both played prominent roles. The latter half of C hapter 4 describes th e steps
necessary to transform the raw d a ta into a format suitable for analysis.

1 .4 A n a ly s is

C hapter 5 is devoted to the results of the d ata analyses. S pectra from two- or three­
fold d a ta showing th e highest spins attained are presented for all nuclei, as are their
corresponding levels schemes. The kinematic and dynamic moments of inertia, which give
inform ation about th e orbitals a t or near th e Fermi surface, are also derived.
The experim ents in this thesis were designed so th a t successive experim ents had a
common nucleus between them. Between EI41 and GS33 the ta rg e t was fixed ( 176 Yb),
while between GS33 and GS34 the beam ( 1 S4 Sm) was kept fixed. The energy per nucleon of

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 1 .5 R e s u lts 6

the beams was intentionally kept to around 20% above th e Coulomb barrier. U nder these
same conditions, we also study th e effect of differing N / Z ratios and masses o f th e beam
and target on the isotopic and spin yields of th e reaction products. T he techniques used
to derive these are presented in C hapter 5, as are the yields themselves. Also included in
this chapter are the results of the cross-gated analysis, which provides a means to quantify
neutron evaporation. T he chapter ends by introducing the concept o f an experim ental
Routhian which, by transform ing 7 -ray energies into rotation energy in th e intrinsic fram e
of the rotating nucleus, perm its us to com pare our results w ith those of th e cranked shell
model.

1 .5 R e s u lt s

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T he results, which are presented in their entirety in Section 6 , are briefly sum m arized
here. Nuclei as far as eight nucleons from th e parent nucleus were inferred (EI41) and
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a-tran sfer was observed directly via cross-gating (EI41). Transfer yields as low as 0.1%
of the to ta l reaction cross section were m easured in th e case of tw o-neutron transfer into
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the targ et in EI41 and into th e projectile in GS34. In EI41 the isotopic yields are strongly
influenced by the N / Z ratios of th e reaction products. This behavior is consistent w ith
the tendency of deep inelastic reactions. T he N / Z driving force in GS33 and GS34 is small
and, consequently, fewer products are seen.
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Taken as a whole the three experim ents accounted for 61 new transition in 13 neutron-
rich nuclei. M any of these new transitions were found in nuclei th a t are inaccessible via
other reaction mechanisms. For instance, th e production of 178Yb implies th e population of
nuclei up to 10 neutrons richer th an can be populated in com pound nucleus reactions. The
maxim um am ount of angular m om entum generated in any experim ent was 22k (GS34).
The spin yields display a decidedly flatter slope th a n predicted by quasi-elastic transfer
theory, b u t axe in qualitative agreem ent w ith expectations and also w ith th e results from
an earlier deep inelastic experim ent. T he experim ental Routhians also show qualitative
agreement with the results of the cranked shell model, however, it appears th a t th e pre­
diction of another oscillation in th e interaction stren g th a t N=104 is not borne o u t by our
data.

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 7

2 T h eory

2 .1 I n t r o d u c t io n

By the early 1950’s the idea th at the nuclear potential felt by a single nucleon is in some
sense an average potential generated by all of the remaining nucleons was well advanced.
Remarkably, this single particle potential is well approxim ated by a harmonic oscillator
p otential , 1 and with the incorporation of the spin-orbit term [May49] is able to account
for the ground state spins and magnetic moments of m any nuclei near closed shells. The
shell model of a spherical nucleus resulting from these assumptions is reminiscent of the
electronic shell model of an atom in th a t it gives rise to a picture of nucleons moving

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around in well defined orbits. It is not a priori obvious th a t this should be the case:
nucleons are bound by a short-range force th a t in no way resembles the long-range Coulomb
forces responsible for electronic structure. The existence of nuclear shells can largely
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be a ttrib u ted to the Pauli exclusion principle, where anti-sym m etrization requirements
on th e m any-body wave function cause each nucleon to feel only the tail of th e nuclear
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potential and in this way they are able to occupy well-defined orbits w ithout significant
modification by the details of the strong nuclear force, e.g., w ithout significant nucleon-
nucleon scattering. Small deviations from the single-particle picture can be accommodated
by the inclusion of a two-body term without destroying the shell concept. The spherical
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shell model is discussed in Sections 2 .2 . 1 and 2 .2 .2 .

Spherical nuclei tend to be the exception rath er than the rule in nature - even excited
states in otherwise spherical nuclei have non-vanishing quadrupole moments - an indication
th a t their shape has some degree of deformation. As nuclei move away from closed shells,
they find it energetically favorable to take on a perm anent deformation. In other words,
the distribution of nuclear m atter becomes anisotropic as the magnetic substates of the
spherical states are no longer equally populated. Although individual nucleons can still
be thought of as moving about in an average potential, this potential is rotating and no
‘T he true single-particle potential is actually flatter than th a t of a pure harmonic oscillator and thus
also has elements of a square well potential. In spite of this, the harmonic oscillator aspect of the true
potential will be the focus of this discussion. The flatness of the square well potential is readily incorporated
into the harmonic oscillator model.

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 2.1 In tr o d u c tio n 8

longer spherical. There is a continuum of shapes describing deformed nuclei, however,

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Figure 3: Prolate spheroid o f revolution, with semi-major axis length a and semi-minor
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axis length b.

all of the deformed nuclei discussed in this thesis are closely approxim ated by a prolate
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ellipsoidal shape, represented in Figure 3, whose charge distribution p (r') produces an

intrinsic quadrupole mom ent Q q classically given by

Qo = f dT'p(r')r'2(Z cos2 #' - 1)

V 5 J (1)
= J dT,p (r')r,2Y<?(6',cf>')

where d r1 is the volume element in the intrinsic frame. For a constant charge density this
equation can be integrated to give

of = - ‘2) (2)

where Z is the atomic num ber of th e nucleus. If the difference in lengths between the
semi-major and semi-minor axis lengths, a —6 , is denoted as A R , th e above expression

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