English Grammar

Academic Year 2024-2025

2L- Semester 3
Lecture 03
Presented by: Souadkia M.

Relative Clauses and Relative Pronouns

1. Relative Clauses:

Relative clauses are usually introduced by relative pronouns such as that, who, or
which and are used to provide information about someone or something just mentioned. We
can use relative clauses to identify people (I’ve just seen the women who lives upstairs),
describe things (She’s climbing up a ladder that wobbles with very gust of wind) and add
comments (I think she’s going to clean her windows, which seems rather dangerous in the
circumstances). We can sometimes use a relative clause with no relative pronoun (With every
step _she takes, water splashes out of the bucket_ she’s carrying).

We use the relative clause to give more information about a noun phrase in a preceding
clause. Instead of repeating the subject noun phrase, we can use a relative pronoun (who,
which).
Consider the following examples:
(1) I have a friend. The friend or He lives in London. I have a friend who lives in
London.
(2) We found a shop. The shop or It sold old records. We found a shop which sold
old records.

When we use a relative pronoun instead of an object noun or pronoun, we put the relative
pronoun at the beginning of the relative clause. We do not repeat the noun or pronoun.

Consider the examples:

(3) I loved the card. You sent it. I loved the card that you sent. (NOT…the card
that you sent it.)
(4) He’s one man. I admire him. He’s one man whom I admire. (NOT…whom I
admire him.)

We usually try to put relative clauses immediately after the noun phrases they describe (5), but
we can include a preposition phrase between the noun phrase and the relative clause (6).
(5) The food came in plastic bags. We had to eat the food. The food that we had to
eat came in plastic bags. (NOT the food came in plastic bags that we had to eat.)
(6) A pirate is a person on a ship who attacks and steals from other ships.
 2. Relative Pronouns: who, whom, which , that

We use who and whom when we are talking about people. We can use who as the
subject of a relative clause (7) and whom as the object (8). Whom is formal. In informal
situations, we can use who as the object, or more usually, we leave out the relative pronoun (9).
Consider the followings:
(7) Michael is a teacher. He works in Dublin. Michael is a teacher who works in
Dublin.
(8) The person wasn’t Michael. You met him. The person whom you met wasn’t
Michael.
(9) The person who you met wasn’t Michael./ The person_ you met wasn’t Michael.

We can use whom after prepositions at the beginning of a relative clause in formal
situations. In informal situations, we can put the preposition after the verb and use who at the
beginning or, more usually, we leave out the relative pronoun.
(10) The man is Joe Nash. You should talk to him. The man to whom you should
talk is Joe Nash. / The man who you should talk to is Joe Nash. / The man_ you
should talk to is Joe Nash.

We use which and that for things or animals (11) and after group nouns such as team
for a group of people we are thinking of as single unit (12). Which is more formal. In informal
situations, we sometimes use that instead of who/whom for people (13).
(11) I found the keys which/that were missing. * They own a cat which/that doesn’t
have a tail.
(12) We were in the team. The team won the cup. We were in the team which/that
won the cup.
(13) The woman is a nurse. She lives next door. The woman that lives next door
is a nurse.
We can use which after prepositions at the beginning of a relative clause in formal
situations. In informal situations, we put the preposition after the verb and use that at the
beginning of the relative clause or, more usually, we leave out the relative pronoun.
(14) I can’t remember the hotel. We stayed in the hotel. I can’t remember the
hotel in which we stayed. / I can’t remember the hotel (that) we stayed in. (NOT…
the hotel we stayed in it.)

Defining and non-defining relative clauses

1. Defining relative clauses:

In a defining relative clause, we include information that identifies or classifies

people (1) and things (2). The meaning of the sentences in not complete without the defining
relative clause.
 (1) Do you remember the woman who used to work in the bookshop? She’s a teacher
now.
(2) Do you have a thing that measures temperature? - You mean a thermometer?
Sorry, I don’t.
We often use (that) at the beginning of a defining relative clause instead of the object
(3) or the object of a preposition (4). We usually use (that) after noun phrases containing
superlatives (5) or quantifiers (6).
(3) I bought the dictionary. Maria wanted it. I bought the dictionary (that) Maria
wanted.
(4) The film is ‘Twins.' He’s talking about it. The film (that) he’s talking about is
‘Twins.’
(5) It’s the best film (that) I’ve seen in years. * He was the worst teacher (that) I had
at school.
(6) There’s a lot (that) I don’t know about computers. *Every person (that) we met
had a cold.
We can also begin defining relative clauses with who, whom and which.
(7) I don’t know anyone who/whom I can trust. *There are two rules which you must
always obey.

2. Non-defining relative clauses

When we want to include essential information, we use a defining relative clause (8).
When we are simply adding extra information, we use a non-defining relative clause (9). We
usually put a comma before a non-defining clause and a comma after it, unless it is the end of
the sentence.
Consider the examples:
(8) The first caller who can give the correct answer will win the prize.
(9) The first caller, who was from the London area, didn’t give the correct answer.
We can also use brackets or dashes. The second caller (who sounded Scottish) got it right.
We usually use who, whom or which at the beginning of non-defining relative clauses
(10). We don’t usually begin non-defining relative clauses with that or without a relative
pronoun (11).
(10) Our new boss, who seems to be nice, has said nothing about Mr Bell, whom
he replaced.
(11) The Mini, which some people initially laughed at, soon became the most
popular car. (NOT The Mini, (that) some people initially laughed at, soon became
the most popular car.)
We can use non-defining clauses with which to add comments about preceding
statements (12). We also use which in preposition phrases such as in which case at the beginning
of non-defining relative clause used to add comments (13).
(12) They said Catherine had been in prison, which simply wasn’t true.
 (13) There may be a strike, in which case the office will remain closed.
In non-defining relative clauses we can use of which and of whom after quantifiers
such as some (14) or superlatives such as the most famous (15). We do this when we want to
add information about part of something or about an individual from a group already mentioned.
(14) The last lecture, some of which I just didn’t understand, was about osmosis.
(15) At the conference, there were several writers, the most famous of whom was
Paul Theroux.
We can also put superlatives after the relative pronoun:…writers, of whom the most famous
was…
Reduced Relative Clause
A relative clause formed with a participle and no relative pronoun is called a reduced relative
clause. We use present participle (1) and past participle (2).
(1) There are two students who are waiting outside. There are two students waiting
outside.
(2) The strawberries which had been dipped in chocolate were really delicious! The
strawberries dipped in chocolate were really delicious!

We use a present participle in place of an active verb (3) and a past participle in place of a
passive verb (4).
(3) There were teachers who were shouting and children who were running out of the
building. There were teachers shouting and children running out of the building.
(4) Debbie only drinks juice that is made from fresh fruit that is grown organically.
Debbie only drinks juice made from fresh fruit grown organically.
We can use participles instead of verbs referring to the past, present or future.
(5) The winner is the person who scored/scores/will score the most points in the game.
The winner is the person scoring the most points in the game.
(6) First prize is for the most points which were scored/are scored/will be scored in the
game. First prize is for the most points scored in the game.
We can use a participle from a simple passive to describe a general situation (7), a
continuous passive to emphasize that a situation is continuing (8) or a perfect passive to
emphasize that a situation has continued from an earlier time (9).
(7) We are concerned about people held in prison without a trial. (= who are held)
(8) We are concerned about people being held in prison without a trial. (= who are being
held)
(9) We are concerned about people having been held in prison without a trial. (= who have
been held)
Participles can also be used in non-defining relative clauses, usually in written descriptions
and narratives.
(10) The old car, trailing black smoke, drove off towards town. (= which was
trailing smoke) * Robert Ball, nicknamed ‘Big Bob’, was my favourite teacher. (= who
was nicknamed)
We put not before the participle in negative reduced relative clauses.
(11) My parents, not having much money, never went on holiday. (= who didn’t
have) * I’d prefer shirts not made with polyester if you have any. (= which aren’t made)

We can use some adjectives and adjective phrases after nouns in a way that is similar to reduced
relative clauses.
(12) There was one seat available on the flight. (= one seat which was available) *
Mercury is a metal, silver in colour, often found in liquid form. (= which is silver in
colour)
Other include: necessary, possible, present, ready, responsible, suitable
We don’t use a participle instead of a verb that describes a single or sudden action (13) or a
verb with a subject that is different from the relative pronoun (14).
(13) There was a sudden bang that woke me up. (NOT There was a sudden bang
waking me up)
(14) There are several things that we need from the shop. (NOT There are several
things needing…) * This isn’t the information that I was given before. (NOT This isn’t
the information given before)
We usually use an infinitive, not a participle, after a noun preceded by the adjectives first,
second, etc.
(15) Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the moon. (= who walked on
the moon) (NOT Neil Armstrong was the first person walking on the moon.)

Relative Clause with where, what, whatever, etc.

1. Relative clauses with where, when, why, and how

We can use where instead of in which, at which, etc. after nouns for places (1) and
after nouns such as point and stage (2). More figuratively, we can use where after nouns like
situation (3).
(1) There’s a small box. I keep keys in it. There’s a small box where/in which I keep
keys.
(2) We have reached a stage where we now have more people applying than we have
space for.
(3) Women are better in situations where strategy is more important than strength.

Other nouns used like this include: activity, case, example, experience, society

We can use when instead of at which, during which, etc. after nouns referring to time.
(4) Do you have a moment when we can talk?* That was a period when everything was
fine.
We don’t use when after each/every time. That happens each/every time (that) it rains.
After the noun reason, we can use why or no relative pronoun.
(5) There may be good reasons (why) he couldn’t come. * There’s no reason (why) you
can’t do it.
We can use where, when, why, and how in place of a noun and relative pronoun combined.
(6) That’s where his car was parked. * He pointed to where he used to live. (= the place
where)
That’s when I start. * They were talking about when they were children. (= the time
when)
That’s why I’m here! * She never told anyone why she had to leave. (= the reason
why)
That’s how it’s done. * We showed him how we make rice pudding. (= the way in
which)
We don’t use how after the way: the way (that) we make it. (NOT the way how we make it.) 2.

2. Relative clauses with what

We can use what, meaning ‘the thing(s) that’, at the beginning of relative clauses used
as objects (7) or subjects (8).
(7) She gave them the things that she had. She gave them what she had.
(8) What they’re doing seems wrong. (NOT What they’re doing it seems wrong.)
We don’t use what after quantifiers (9) or after nouns or pronouns (10).
(9) Some people lost all (that) they had invested. (NOT They lost all what they had
invested.)
(10) We’ll buy the food and everything (that) we need later. OR We’ll buy what
we need later. (NOT the food what we need, everything what we need)

3. Relative clauses with whatever, whoever, etc.

We can use whatever, meaning ‘any thing(s) that’ (11), and whoever, meaning ‘any
person(s) that’ (12), at the beginning of relative clauses used as objects or subjects. We use
whichever when we’re talking about ‘any thing(s) that’ from a limited number or set of choices
(13).
(11) If you take the big boxes, I’ll take whatever is left. * Whatever she did make
them happy.
(12) We will work with whoever they send. * Whoever said those things is
mistaken.
(13) Write in pen or pencil, whichever you prefer. * I’ll go by bus or train,
whichever is cheaper.
We can use whatever, whoever and whichever to say ‘it doesn’t matter what, who or which’.
(14) I’ll always love you, whatever you do. * I’m not waiting all day for her,
whoever she is.
 He’ll be in trouble, whichever he chooses. * Whichever way they go, we’ll catch
them.
We can also use wherever, whenever, and however with the meanings ‘in or at any place, time
or way that…’ (15) and ‘it doesn’t matter where, when, or how…’ (16).
(15) He always keeps in touch wherever he is.* Whenever I see Penny, she asks
me about you.
(16) Please sit wherever you like. * Call whenever you can. * Just buy it, however
much it costs.
Exercise 01
Add one set of relative pronouns (not necessarily in this order) to each description. Which one
could be left out?
that/ which/ who (x2)/ whom that (x2)/ which/ who (x2)
Laurel and Hardy were a pair of comedy actors (1)………………made over 100 film from
1926 to 1940. Stan Laurel, (2)………………was born in Britain, and Oliver Hardy, an
American, were first successful in silent films and were famous for their slapstick style of
comedy. In their films, Laurel often caused the many accidents (3)………………happened to
them both, after (4)………………..Hardy would get angry and say, ‘This is another fine mess
(5)………………..you’ve gotten me into.’
A Jekyll and Hyde is a person (6)………………..has two personalities, one of
(7)…………….is bad and the other good. The expression comes from a novel about Dr Jekyll,
(8)…………….investigates the good and evil parts of human nature and invents a drug
(9)…………….can separate them. When he takes the drug, he becomes an evil version of
himself, (10)……………..he calls Mr Hyde.
Exercise 02
Add one of these clauses to each of the sentences below. Use relative pronouns and make other
appropriate changes. Add commas where necessary.
1. He or she controls a sports game
2. Some of them are poisonous
3. It consists of nine islands
4. You rent a room or a flat from him
5. He has never been married
6. Most people know him as Mark Twain
7. It uses exaggerated actions, often involving accidents
8. The target part of it is below the surface of the water
9. Each competitor takes part in three different sports in it
Example: A bachelor is a man who has never been married.
1) Slapstick is a type of comedy…………………………………………………………...
2) A referee is an official………………………………………………………………….
3) A triathlon is a sports event……………………………………………………………..
4) A landlord is a person……………………………………………………………………
5) An iceberg……………………………………………………………………............is a
solid mass of ice floating in the ocean.
6) Snakes…………………………………………………….are long reptiles without legs.
7) Tuvalu…………………………………………….……is a country in the south Pacific.
8) Samuel Clemens……………………………………………was a major American
writer.
Exercise 03
Using a dictionary if necessary, complete these definitions with the nouns and appropriate forms
of the verbs in reduced relative clauses.
Jigsaw, mermaid, cause, have, send, work, memo, shadow, cut, print, stand
1. A…………………….is a written note………………..between people………in the
same organization.
2. A…………………….is an imaginary creature………….the body of a woman but a
fish’s tail instead of legs.
3. A…………………….is a picture…………………………on cardboard or wood
and…………into various shapes that have to be fitted together again.
4. A…………………….is a dark area on a surface……………by an
object…………….between direct light and that surface.

Exercise 04
Complete this email message with how (x2), what, when, where and why.
Do you have a minute or two this morning (1)……………we can talk? I’m at a point
(2)………….I need to check with you about (3)…………….I should organize the report and
(4)………….I should include or leave out. If you agree with (5)……………..I’m planning to
organize it, then there’s no reason (6)……………..we can’t have it finished by Friday.
Exercise 05
Using a dictionary if necessary, complete these definitions with the following words.
- Crime, prison, revenge, motive, quarantine
- That, when, which, what, where, why
1. ………………….is a place…………………people are kept as punishment for
crimes.
2. A…………….is an explanation of………………someone acts in a particular way.
3. A…………….is an offense for…………………..you may be punished by law.
4. ……………….is deliberate punishment or injury……………..is inflicted in return
for……………someone has suffered.
5. ……………….is a period……………..an animal or person is kept away from others in
order to prevent the possible spread of disease.
Exercise 06
Choose an ending (a-e) for each beginning (1-5) and add these words:
However whatever whenever whichever whoever
1. You can dress (…) a. ……………………. they want to on Sunday morning.
2. We lived on potatoes (…) b. ……………………..we think would enjoy the party.
3. The girls can get up (…) c. and………………….else was available.
4. We’ll go there (…) d…………………..you like because it’s really casual.
 5. They said we could invite (…) e. on Monday or Tuesday,……..……..day you’re free.

References
1. Yule, G. (2006). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford University Press.