Pre-Examination Training material for Specialist Cadre Officers Exam

Pre-Examination Training Material for Specialist Cadre Officers Exam

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 Pre-Examination Training material for Specialist Cadre Officers Exam

MODULE B: INFRA SUPPORT

1. Basics of Operating Systems
This overview covers foundational concepts in operating systems, including system calls, processes,
threads, memory management, scheduling algorithms, and virtualisation, among others. These topics
are essential for understanding how operating systems manage hardware and software resources.

A . Key Concepts in Operating Systems

System Calls

Definition: System calls provide an interface for programs to request services from the operating
system. They allow user-level processes to communicate with the kernel.

Examples:

• File operations: open(), read(), write(), close()

• Process control: fork(), exec(), wait(), exit()
• Communication: pipe(), socket()

Processes and Threads

• Process: An instance of a program in execution, which has its own memory space. Each
process has a unique Process ID (PID).
• Thread: A lightweight process that shares the same memory space as other threads within
the same process. Threads enable parallel execution within a program.

Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

Definition: IPC allows processes to communicate and synchronise their actions. Common IPC
mechanisms include:

• Pipes: Unidirectional data channels.

• Message Queues: Allow processes to send and receive messages.
• Shared Memory: Multiple processes access the same memory segment.

Concurrency and Synchronisation

• Concurrency: The ability of the operating system to manage multiple processes or threads
simultaneously.
• Synchronisation: Mechanisms (like mutexes and semaphores) to control access to shared
resources to prevent data inconsistency.

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Deadlock

Definition: A situation where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is
waiting for the other to release resources. Prevention strategies include resource ordering and
deadlock detection algorithms.

B. Memory Management and Virtual Memory

Memory Management

Definition: The process of managing computer memory, allocating space to processes, and
keeping track of each byte in a computer’s memory.

Virtual Memory

Definition: A memory management technique that creates an illusion of a large memory space by
using disk space to extend the physical memory. It allows for more processes to be run
simultaneously.

C. CPU Scheduling Algorithms

First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

• Method: The first process in the queue gets executed first. Simple but can lead to long
wait times (convoy effect).

Shortest Job First (SJF)

• Method: The process with the smallest execution time is scheduled next. Minimises
average waiting time but requires knowledge of future process times.

Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF)

• Method: Pre-emptive version of SJF. The process with the least remaining time is
executed next.

Round Robin (RR)

• Method: Each process is assigned a fixed time slice (quantum) in a cyclic order. Fair and
suitable for time-sharing systems.

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D. Types of Memories

Cache Memory

Definition: A small-sized type of volatile memory that provides high-speed data access to
the CPU. It stores frequently accessed data to speed up processing.

Main Memory (RAM)

Definition: The primary storage used by the CPU to hold data and instructions currently in
use. It is volatile and loses its content when power is turned off.

Secondary Storage

Definition: Non-volatile storage that retains data even when powered off. Examples
include Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) and Solid State Drives (SSDs).

E. Paging and Page Replacement Algorithms

Paging

Definition: A memory management scheme that eliminates the need for contiguous
allocation of physical memory. Memory is divided into fixed-size units called pages.

Page Replacement Algorithms

• FIFO (First-In, First-Out): Replaces the oldest page in memory.

• Optimal Page Replacement: Replaces the page that will not be used for the
longest period of time in the future.
• LRU (Least Recently Used): Replaces the page that has not been used for the
longest time.

F. I/O Scheduling Algorithms

First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

• Method: Serves requests in the order they arrive. Simple but can be inefficient.

Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF)

• Method: Serves the closest request next, minimizing movement of the disk arm.

SCAN and LOOK

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• SCAN: The disk arm moves in one direction servicing requests until it reaches the end,
then reverses direction.
• LOOK: Similar to SCAN but only goes as far as the last request in each direction.

C-SCAN and C-LOOK

• C-SCAN: The disk arm moves in one direction and, upon reaching the end, jumps
back to the beginning.
• C-LOOK: Like C-SCAN but only goes to the last request in one direction before
jumping back

2. Advanced Concepts in Backup and Recovery, Security Compliance, and

Computing Environments
This comprehensive overview covers essential practices in backup and recovery, security and
compliance controls, and the characteristics of Windows and Unix/Linux computing environments.
These topics are crucial for IT professionals preparing for competitive exams in systems
administration and cybersecurity.

1. Backup and Recovery Practices

Importance of Backup and Recovery

Backup and recovery processes are vital for ensuring data integrity and availability. They protect against
data loss due to hardware failures, accidental deletions, cyberattacks, and natural disasters. A well-defined
backup strategy can minimise downtime and data loss, thus supporting business continuity.

Types of Backups

1. Full Backup:
o Description: A complete copy of all data and system files.
o Advantages: Simplifies recovery; restores all data in one operation.
o Disadvantages: Time-consuming and storage-intensive.
2. Incremental Backup:
o Description: Backs up only the data that has changed since the last backup (full or
incremental).
o Advantages: Faster and requires less storage space.
o Disadvantages: Recovery requires the last full backup and all subsequent incremental
backups, making it more complex.
3. Differential Backup:
o Description: Backs up all data changed since the last full backup.

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o Advantages: Faster recovery than incremental backups, as only the last full backup and
the last differential backup are needed.
o Disadvantages: Takes more time and storage than incremental backups as more data
accumulates.

Backup Strategies

• 3-2-1 Rule: Maintain three total copies of your data, two of which are local but on different
devices, and one off-site.
• Automated Backups: Use software tools to schedule regular backups, reducing human error.
• Testing Restores: Regularly test backup files to ensure data integrity and successful restoration.

Recovery Processes

• Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP): A documented strategy to recover IT infrastructure and

operations after a disaster. It includes roles, responsibilities, and procedures.
• Recovery Time Objective (RTO): The targeted duration of time to restore operations after a
disaster.
• Recovery Point Objective (RPO): The maximum acceptable amount of data loss measured in
time.

2. Best Practices for Security and Compliance Controls

Importance of Security and Compliance

Implementing robust security and compliance controls is essential for protecting sensitive data, meeting
regulatory requirements, and maintaining the trust of stakeholders.

Key Security Practices

1. Access Control:
o Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Limit access to data based on user roles. Ensure
that users only have the minimum privileges necessary for their tasks.
o Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Add an extra layer of security beyond passwords,
requiring additional verification (e.g., a mobile device).
2. Data Encryption:
o Encrypt sensitive data at rest (stored data) and in transit (data being transmitted) to protect
against unauthorised access.
3. Regular Security Audits:
o Conduct periodic audits to assess vulnerabilities, ensuring compliance with security
policies and regulatory requirements.
4. Incident Response Plan:
o Develop and maintain a plan to identify, respond to, and recover from security incidents.
Regularly test and update the plan.

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Compliance Controls

• Regulatory Frameworks: Adhere to industry standards and regulations, such as GDPR, HIPAA,
and PCI-DSS, which dictate data handling and protection practices.
• Documentation: Maintain thorough documentation of security policies, procedures, and
compliance efforts to demonstrate adherence to regulations.
• Employee Training: Conduct regular training sessions to ensure employees are aware of security
protocols and best practices.

3. Windows and Unix/Linux Computing Environments

Windows Computing Environment

• Architecture: Windows OS uses a graphical user interface (GUI) and a variety of system services
to manage hardware and software resources. Common versions include Windows Server and
Windows 10.
• File System: Windows primarily uses NTFS (New Technology File System), supporting large
files, security permissions, and journaling.
• Command Line Interface (CLI): Windows includes PowerShell and Command Prompt for
command-line operations, allowing users to perform administrative tasks and scripting.
• User Management: Windows uses Active Directory for user management and authentication,
making it easy to manage multiple user accounts and permissions across a network.

Unix/Linux Computing Environment

• Architecture: Unix/Linux is a multi-user, multitasking operating system known for its robustness
and flexibility. It can be run on various hardware architectures.
• File System: Common file systems include ext4 (Linux) and UFS (Unix), providing features like
file permissions, symbolic links, and hierarchical directory structures.
• Command Line Interface (CLI): The shell (e.g., Bash, Zsh) is a powerful command-line
interface that allows users to execute commands, write scripts, and automate tasks.
• User Management: Unix/Linux employs a user/group permission model for file access control.
Users have unique IDs, and permissions are set at the file level (read, write, execute).

Key Differences

• User Interface: Windows is predominantly GUI-based, whereas Unix/Linux relies heavily on

CLI, though graphical environments are available.
• Licensing: Windows is proprietary software, while Unix/Linux distributions (like Ubuntu,
CentOS) are often open-source and free to use.
• Customisation: Unix/Linux offers extensive customisation options for users and administrators,
allowing for a tailored computing environment.

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Test your knowledge

1. What is the primary function of system calls in an operating system?

A) Manage hardware components

B) Provide an interface for user-level programs to request services
C) Schedule processes
D) Handle file management
E) Allocate memory
Answer: B
2. Which of the following best describes a process?
A) A lightweight thread
B) A collection of threads
C) An instance of a program in execution
D) A temporary storage area
E) A system call
Answer: C
3. What is the main advantage of using threads over processes?
A) Threads consume more resources
B) Threads provide better security
C) Threads share the same memory space
D) Threads are easier to create
E) Threads have unique Process IDs
Answer: C
4. Which of the following is NOT a mechanism for Inter-Process Communication
(IPC)?
A) Pipes
B) Shared Memory
C) Message Queues
D) Semaphore
E) Stack
Answer: E
5. What does deadlock prevention aim to achieve?
A) Allow processes to proceed without resource allocation
B) Ensure all processes can run indefinitely
C) Prevent two or more processes from waiting indefinitely for resources
D) Stop processes from being terminated
E) Avoid resource starvation
Answer: C
6. What is virtual memory primarily used for?
A) To provide faster access to data
B) To increase the apparent size of physical memory
C) To manage file storage
D) To allocate CPU time

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E) To optimise network communication

Answer: B
7. Which CPU scheduling algorithm is known for minimizing average waiting time?
A) First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
B) Round Robin (RR)
C) Shortest Job First (SJF)
D) Longest Job First (LJF)
E) Priority Scheduling
Answer: C
8. In the context of memory management, what does the term 'paging' refer to?
A) Contiguous allocation of memory
B) Non-contiguous allocation of physical memory using fixed-size units
C) Compression of data stored in memory
D) Backup of memory data
E) Encryption of memory contents
Answer: B
9. What is the purpose of a page replacement algorithm?
A) To prevent deadlock
B) To manage CPU scheduling
C) To decide which page to remove when new pages are needed
D) To enhance data security
E) To synchronise threads
Answer: C
10. Which of the following is an example of a secondary storage device?
A) RAM
B) Cache Memory
C) Solid State Drive (SSD)
D) Registers
E) CPU
Answer: C
11. What does the term 'context switching' refer to in operating systems?
A) Switching between different operating systems
B) The process of storing and restoring the state of a CPU
C) Changing the CPU architecture
D) Altering the system call interface
E) Moving processes between main and secondary storage
Answer: B
12. Which I/O scheduling algorithm is designed to minimise the seek time of the disk
arm?
A) FCFS
B) SSTF
C) SCAN
D) C-SCAN
E) Round Robin
Answer: B

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13. What is the 3-2-1 backup strategy?

A) Three copies on one device, two in the cloud, one offline
B) Three copies of data, two local, one off-site
C) Three full backups per week
D) Two incremental backups, one full backup
E) Three different types of backups in a day
Answer: B
14. Which type of backup is the most time-consuming but simplest for recovery?
A) Incremental Backup
B) Differential Backup
C) Full Backup
D) Mirror Backup
E) Synthetic Backup
Answer: C
15. What does RTO stand for in disaster recovery planning?
A) Recovery Transfer Objective
B) Recovery Time Objective
C) Restoration Time Objective
D) Resource Transfer Objective
E) Recovery Task Order
Answer: B
16. Which of the following is a key characteristic of the Linux operating system?
A) Proprietary licensing
B) Graphical User Interface only
C) Open-source and customisable
D) Limited multi-user capabilities
E) Static file systems
Answer: C
17. Which command is used in Linux to change file permissions?
A) chmod
B) cp
C) mv
D) ls
E) rm
Answer: A
18. Which security practice adds an extra layer of protection beyond passwords?
A) User Roles
B) Data Encryption
C) Incident Response
D) Multi-Factor Authentication
E) Access Control Lists
Answer: D
19. What is the primary function of a semaphore in operating systems?
A) Manage CPU scheduling
B) Control access to shared resources

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C) Facilitate network communication

D) Store process states
E) Encrypt data
Answer: B

20. Which file system is primarily used by Windows operating systems?

A) ext4
B) NTFS
C) FAT32
D) HFS+
E) UFS
Answer: B
21. What is the purpose of an incident response plan?
A) To back up data
B) To restore lost data
C) To identify and manage security incidents
D) To conduct training for employees
E) To perform audits
Answer: C
22. What does LRU stand for in page replacement algorithms?
A) Least Recently Used
B) Last Resource Unused
C) Longest Run Used
D) Least Resource Utilised
E) Last Read Unused
Answer: A
23. Which of the following best describes a full backup?
A) Backs up only changed data
B) Backups are cumulative since the last backup
C) A complete copy of all data
D) Minimal time required for recovery
E) Only backs up metadata
Answer: C
24. Which process control system call creates a new process?
A) exec()
B) fork()
C) wait()
D) exit()
E) open()
Answer: B
25. What is meant by 'memory fragmentation'?
A) Memory is corrupted
B) Memory is inefficiently allocated
C) Memory is inaccessible
D) Memory is overloaded

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E) Memory is fully utilised

Answer: B
26. In which scenario would you use the SCAN algorithm?
A) For random I/O requests
B) To minimise disk arm movement
C) In time-sharing systems
D) When the system is idle
E) For simultaneous read/write operations
Answer: B
27. What does the acronym 'RAID' stand for in storage systems?
A) Redundant Array of Independent Disks
B) Random Access of Internal Data
C) Reliable Access in Data
D) Readable Array of Integrated Disks
E) Redundant Allocation of Internal Data
Answer: A
28. Which operating system is known for its use in server environments
and supports multitasking?
A) Windows
B) Unix
C) MS-DOS
D) macOS
E) Chrome OS
Answer: B
29. What does a mutex do in a concurrent environment?
A) Increases memory allocation
B) Controls access to shared resources
C) Enhances CPU scheduling
D) Reduces context switching
E) Limits user access
Answer: B
30. What is the effect of using a Least Recently Used (LRU) page
replacement strategy?
A) It optimises for speed
B) It minimises page faults
C) It prevents deadlock
D) It maximises throughput
E) It ensures memory security
Answer: B
31. Which of the following is NOT a type of backup?
A) Incremental
B) Differential
C) Full
D) Mirrored

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E) Assured
Answer: E
32. In Windows, which service is used for user management?
A) User Control Panel
B) Active Directory
C) User Authentication Service
D) System Management
E) Group Policy Management
Answer: B
33. Which scheduling algorithm allocates a fixed time slice for each
process?
A) FCFS
B) Shortest Job First
C) Round Robin
D) Priority Scheduling
E) Multilevel Queue
Answer: C
34. Which mechanism helps prevent race conditions in concurrent
programming?
A) Paging
B) Synchronisation primitives
C) Process spawning
D) Resource allocation
E) Thread pooling
Answer: B
35. What is the primary purpose of a disaster recovery plan?
A) To increase storage capacity
B) To outline steps for recovering from a disaster
C) To manage daily operations
D) To implement security protocols
E) To upgrade hardware
Answer: B
36. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of cache memory?
A) High speed
B) Volatile
C) Large capacity
D) Temporary storage
E) Closer to the CPU
Answer: C
37. What does FIFO stand for in page replacement algorithms?
A) First In, First Out
B) Fixed Input, Fixed Output
C) Fast Input, Fast Output
D) First Implemented, First Offered

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E) First Indexed, First Organised

Answer: A
38. Which type of memory is known for being non-volatile?
A) RAM
B) Cache
C) ROM
D) Registers
E) Buffer
Answer: C
39. What is the key benefit of using an Incremental Backup?
A) Simplicity of recovery
B) Speed and reduced storage requirements
C) Complete data restoration
D) No risk of data loss
E) All files backed up at once
Answer: B
40. Which of the following is a characteristic of the Unix/Linux command line
interface
A) GUI only
B) Complex syntax
C) Intuitive user experience
D) Limited functionality
E) Batch processing
Answer: B
41. What does the command 'chmod' do in Linux?
A) Change file ownership
B) Change file permissions
C) Copy files
D) Move files
E) Create directories
Answer: B
42. What is an advantage of using multi-factor authentication (MFA)?
A) Reduces password complexity
B) Requires only one password
C) Enhances security by requiring additional verification
D) Is easier to implement than single-factor authentication
E) Does not require user training
Answer: C
43. Which backup type is typically faster to perform than a full
backup?
A) Full Backup
B) Incremental Backup
C) Mirrored Backup
D) Differential Backup

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E) Synthetic Backup
Answer: B
44. What is the primary role of a resource manager in an operating
system?
A) Control CPU scheduling
B) Manage storage allocation
C) Track resource usage
D) Handle user interfaces
E) Monitor network traffic
Answer: C
45. What does the term 'data encryption' refer to?
A) Reducing data size
B) Transforming data into a secure format
C) Creating backups
D) Recovering lost data
E) Organizing data
Answer: B
46. Which operating system feature allows users to run multiple
applications simultaneously?
A) Single-tasking
B) Multithreading
C) Multitasking
D) Batch processing
E) Resource allocation
Answer: C
47. What is the main disadvantage of the FCFS scheduling algorithm?
A) High complexity
B) Increased wait time for shorter processes
C) Requires extensive memory
D) Difficult to implement
E) Inefficient for interactive systems
Answer: B
48. What is a primary advantage of using virtual memory?
A) Increased speed of processes
B) Reduced physical memory requirements
C) Enhanced data security
D) Simpler memory management
E) Increased data storage
Answer: B

49. Which type of system call allows a process to wait for another
process to finish execution?
A) fork()
B) wait()
C) exec()

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D) exit()
E) close()
Answer: B
50. What does the term 'concurrency' refer to in operating systems?
A) Running multiple processes at the same time
B) Ensuring data security
C) Managing memory allocation
D) Synchronizing threads
E) Allocating CPU time
Answer: A

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