GATE in Data Science and AI Study Materials

Calculus
By Piyush Wairale

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revise your short notes twice a week

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please mention it in our discussion forum on webiste

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1
1 Function:
A function is a relation between a set of inputs (domain) and a set of possible outputs
(codomain), where each input is related to exactly one output.
The set of all values of f (x) taken together is called the range of f or the image of X
under f . Symbolically:

range of f = {y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x ∈ X}

1. One-One (Injective) Function

A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective) if the images of distinct
elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for any x1 , x2 ∈ X, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then it
implies that x1 = x2 .

2. Onto (Surjective) Function

A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective) if every element of Y is the
image of some element of X under f , i.e., for every y ∈ Y , there exists an element
x ∈ X such that f (x) = y.

3. One-One and Onto (Bijective) Function

A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective) if it is both one-one
and onto.

• Domain
The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values for which the function
is defined.

• Range
The range of a function is the set of all possible output values that the function can
produce.

• Codomain
The codomain of a function is the set that contains all the possible values that the
function can output. It may or may not be equal to the range.

Examples
Example 1: One-to-One Function
Consider the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x + 3. This function is one-to-one
because for every input x, there exists a unique output y. The domain is R, the range is R,
and the codomain is R.

2
Example 2: Many-to-One Function
Consider the function g : R → R defined by g(x) = x2 . This function is many-to-one because
multiple inputs (e.g., x and −x) can produce the same output. The domain is R, the range
is [0, ∞), and the codomain is R.

Example 3: Restricted Domain

√
Consider the function h : [0, ∞) → R defined by h(x) = x. This function is one-to-one
because each positive real number has a unique non-negative square root. The domain is
[0, ∞), the range is [0, ∞), and the codomain is R.

3
Types of functions:

• Explicit Functions
Explicit functions are functions where the dependent variable (usually denoted as y) is
expressed explicitly in terms of the independent variable (usually denoted as x), such
as y = f (x).
Example :y = f (x) = 2x + 3

• Implicit Functions
Implicit functions are functions where the relationship between the dependent and in-
dependent variables is defined implicitly, often by an equation involving both variables,
like x2 + y 2 = 1.

• Composite Functions
Composite functions are formed by combining two or more functions, creating a new
function. For example, if f (x) and g(x) are functions, the composite function h(x) =
f (g(x)) or h(x) = g(f (x))
Let f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2 . Then the composite function is h(x) = f (g(x)) = 2x2 .

• Polynomial Functions
Polynomial functions are algebraic functions of the form f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +
. . . + a1 x + a0 , where ai are constants, and n is a non-negative integer.
Example: f (x) = 3x3 − 2x2 + 5x − 1
Ex: f (x) = 2 + 3x + 42 is a polynomial function of ’x’ with degree 2.
Note:
A polynomial function of degree ’0’ is called a constant polynomial function (or) simply
constant function.

• Rational Functions
p(x)
Rational functions are functions of the form f (x) = q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are both
2x2 −3x+1
polynomial functions. Example: f (x) = x2 +4x+4

• Algebraic Functions
Algebraic functions are functions that can be defined by algebraic equations involving
polynomial, rational,
√ and root functions
Example: f (x) = 3x3 − 2x2 + 5x − 1
If a relation arises due to performing a finite number of fundamental operations ad-
ditions, subtraction, multiplication, division, root extraction etc. on polynomial func-
tions then such a relation is also called an Algebraic function.
1. All polynomial functions are algebraic but not the converse.

4
 2. A function that is not algebraic is called transcendental function.

• Even and Odd Functions

Even functions are symmetric about the y-axis, and odd functions are symmetric about
the origin.
For even functions, f (−x) = f (x), and for odd functions, f (−x) = −f (x). Example:
Even Function:
f (x) = x2 (Symmetric about the y-axis)
Odd Function:
f (x) = x3 (Symmetric about the origin)

5
Composition of Functions

• Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then, the composition of f and g,

denoted by g ◦ f , is defined as the function g ◦ f : A → C given by

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)), for all x ∈ A.

• If f : A → B and g : B → C are one-one, then g ◦ f : A → C is also one-one.

• If f : A → B and g : B → C are onto, then g ◦ f : A → C is also onto.

• Let f : A → B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g ◦ f is one-one. Then

f is one-one.

• Let f : A → B and g : B → C be the given functions such that g ◦ f is onto. Then g

is onto.

Invertible Function

• A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible if there exists a function g : Y → X

such that g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY . The function g is called the inverse of f and is
denoted by f −1 .

• A function f : X → Y is invertible if and only if f is a bijective function.

• If f : X → Y , g : Y → Z, and h : Z → S are functions, then

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.

• Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two invertible functions. Then g ◦ f is also invertible

with (g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

6
2 Important Types of Functions
(VIMP for Written Test/Interviews)

2.1 Constant Function

A constant function is a function where the output value is the same for every input. It’s of
the form f (x) = c, where c is a constant.
Example: Consider the constant function f (x) = 3. Here, c = 3.
Graph:

3.4 f (x) = 3

3.2
f (x)

2.8

2.6

−4 −2 0 2 4
x

This function is a horizontal line at y = 3.

Important Properties:

• Constant output: The function generates the same output, regardless of the input.

• Domain and Range: The domain of a constant function is all real numbers, as there are
no restrictions on the input The range consists of a single value, which is the constant
output c.

• Horizontal graph: The graph is a horizontal line.

• Linearity: The function is linear by definition.

• Parallel to the x-axis: The function is parallel to the x-axis.

• Continuous: The function is continuous on the real numbers.

• Symmetric with respect to the y-axis: The function is symmetric with respect to the
y-axis.

• Zero slope or gradient: The function has zero slope or gradient.

7
 • Order-preserving and order-reversing: The function is both order-preserving and order-
reversing.

• Not invertible: The function is not invertible because it does not pass the horizontal
line test.

2.2 Linear Functions

Definition: A linear function is a polynomial of degree 1. It’s of the form f (x) = mx + b,
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
Example: Consider the linear function f (x) = 2x − 3. Here, m = 2 (slope) and b = −3
(y-intercept).
Graph:

4 f (x) = 2x − 3

2
f (x)

−2

−4

−4 −2 0 2 4
x

Important Properties

• Graph
The graph of a linear function is a straight line in the Cartesian coordinate system.
The slope m determines the steepness of the line, and the y-intercept b determines
where the line intersects the y-axis.

• Slope
The slope of a linear function represents the rate of change of the function with respect
to its input variable x. A positive slope indicates an upward trend, while a negative
slope indicates a downward trend.

• Y-intercept
The y-intercept of a linear function is the value of f (x) when x = 0. It represents the
point where the graph intersects the y-axis.

8
 • Domain and Range
The domain of a linear function is all real numbers. The range depends on the slope
m. If m > 0, the range is (−∞, ∞), and if m < 0, the range is limited.

• Linearity of Operations
Linear functions exhibit linearity of operations. They satisfy the properties of additiv-
ity and homogeneity.

• Inverse Function
Linear functions have inverse functions if and only if their slopes are not equal to zero.
The inverse of a linear function in slope-intercept form f (x) = mx + b is f −1 (x) = x−b
m
.

• Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Lines with the same slope are parallel, and lines with slopes that are negative recipro-
cals of each other are perpendicular.

• Rate of Change
The slope of a linear function represents the rate of change of the dependent variable
(output) with respect to the independent variable (input). For example, in a linear
distance-time graph, the slope represents the speed or velocity.

2.3 Quadratic Functions

Definition: A quadratic function is a polynomial of degree 2. It’s of the form f (x) =
ax2 + bx + c, where a ̸= 0.
Example: Consider the quadratic function f (x) = x2 + 2x − 3. Here, a = 1, b = 2, and
c = −3.
Graph:

4 f (x) = x2 + 2x − 3

2
f (x)

−2

−4

−4 −2 0 2 4
x

9
Important Properties

• Graph: The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola that opens either upward or
downward.

• Domain: The domain of a quadratic function is all real numbers.

• Vertex: The vertex is the lowest point when the parabola opens upwards and the
highest point when the parabola opens downward.

• Axis of symmetry: A quadratic function is always symmetric about the y-axis or a

line parallel to it. The axis of symmetry divides the graph into two equal halves and
always passes through the vertex.

• Maximum and minimum: A quadratic function can only have a maximum or a mini-
mum value.

• Range: Because parabolas have a maximum or a minimum point, the range is re-
stricted.

• Intercepts: Finding the coordinates of the intercepts will help us to graph parabolas.

• Zeros: Many quadratic functions cross the x-axis at points called zeros or roots.

10
 Source:https://www.alloprof.qc.ca/en/students/vl/mathematics/properties-second-degree-polynomial-functions-m1125

2.4 Cubic Functions

A cubic function is a polynomial function of degree 3. It can be expressed in the form:

f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

where a, b, c, and d are constants, and a ̸= 0.
Important Properties

1. Curve: The graph of a cubic function is a curve that can have multiple turning points.

2. Domain: The domain of a cubic function is the set of all real numbers, R.

3. Range: The range of a cubic function can vary depending on the coefficients a, b, c,
and d. It can cover all real numbers or be limited.

4. Y-Intercept: The y-intercept of a cubic function is the value of f (x) when x = 0.

5. X-Intercept (Zeros of the function): The x-intercepts of a cubic function are the
values of x for which f (x) = 0.

11
 6. Turning Points: Cubic functions can have up to two turning points, depending on
the coefficients. These turning points are where the function changes direction.

7. End Behavior: The end behavior of a cubic function is determined by the leading
term, ax3 . If a > 0, the function increases without bound as x approaches positive
or negative infinity. If a < 0, the function decreases without bound as x approaches
positive or negative infinity.

8. Continuity and Differentiability: Cubic functions are continuous and differentiable

everywhere.

9. Symmetry: Cubic functions may exhibit symmetry depending on their coefficients.

They can be symmetric about the y-axis, x-axis, or origin.

Example
Consider the cubic function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 1. Let’s analyze its properties:

• Curve: The graph of this cubic function forms a curve with multiple turning points.

• Domain: The domain of f (x) is R, as there are no restrictions on x.

• Range: The range of f (x) is also R, since the function is continuous and covers all
real numbers.

• Y-Intercept: The y-intercept occurs at (0, −1).

• X-Intercepts: The x-intercepts are the solutions to f (x) = 0.

• Turning Points: This function has up to two turning points, where the direction of
the curve changes.

• End Behavior: Since the leading coefficient a = 1 is positive, the function increases
without bound as x approaches positive or negative infinity.

• Continuity and Differentiability: The function is continuous and differentiable

everywhere.

• Symmetry: This cubic function does not exhibit any specific symmetry.

Graph

12
 f (x) 2
3
4 x − 3x + 2x − 1
f (x) =

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−2

−4

2.5 Square Root Functions

√
A square root
√ function with the form ax + b where a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 is a function defined
by f (x) = ax + b.
Important Properties
√
1. Domain: The domain of a square root function ax + b is all real numbers for which
ax + b ≥ 0, i.e., x ≥ − ab if a > 0 and x ≤ − ab if a < 0.
√
2. Range: The range of a square root function ax + b depends on the values of a and
b. If a > 0, the range is all real numbers greater than or equal to zero. If a < 0, the
range is all real numbers less than or equal to zero.
√
3. Y-Intercept:√ The y-intercept of a square root function ax + b occurs when x = 0,
so it is (0, b).

4. X-Intercept
√ (Zeros of the function): The x-intercepts of a square root function
ax + b occur when f (x) = 0, which may or may not exist depending on the values of
a and b.
√
5. Continuity and Differentiability: Square root functions ax + b are continuous
and differentiable on their domain.
√
6. Increasing or Decreasing Function: The function ax + b is increasing if a > 0
and decreasing if a < 0.
√
7. Asymptote: Square root functions ax + b have no horizontal asymptotes.
√ √ √ √
8. Square Root Properties: The properties a × b = ab and ab = √ab hold for
p
a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.

Graph

13
 3 √
f (x) f (x) = x

x
−1 1 2 3 4 5

2.6 Cube Root Functions

√
A cube root function is a function defined by f (x) = 3
x.
Properties

1. Domain: The domain of a cube root function is all real numbers, R.

2. Range: The range of a cube root function is all real numbers, R.

3. Y-Intercept: The y-intercept of a cube root function occurs when x = 0, so it is

(0, 0).

4. X-Intercept (Zeros of the function): The x-intercepts of a cube root function

occur when f (x) = 0, which is only at x = 0.

5. Continuity and Differentiability: Cube root functions are continuous and differ-
entiable on their domain.

6. Increasing Function: Cube root functions are increasing functions. As the input
increases, the output also increases.

7. Asymptote: Cube root functions have no horizontal asymptotes.

Graph

14
 2
f (x) f (x) = √
3
x

x
−4 −2 2 4

−1

−2

2.7 Reciprocal Functions

A reciprocal function is a function defined by f (x) = x1 , where x ̸= 0.
Important Properties

1. Domain: The domain of a reciprocal function is all real numbers except x = 0, denoted
as (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

2. Range: The range of a reciprocal function is all real numbers except y = 0, denoted
as (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

3. Y-Intercept: The y-intercept of a reciprocal function occurs when x = 0, but since x

cannot be 0, there is no y-intercept.

4. X-Intercept (Zeros of the function): The x-intercepts of a reciprocal function

occur when f (x) = 0, which is only at x = 0.

5. Vertical Asymptotes: Reciprocal functions have vertical asymptotes at x = 0 be-

cause division by zero is undefined.

6. Horizontal Asymptotes: Reciprocal functions have vertical asymptotes at y = 0

7. Continuity and Differentiability: Reciprocal functions are continuous and differ-

entiable on their domain except at x = 0 where they are discontinuous.

8. Increasing or Decreasing Function: Reciprocal functions are neither strictly in-

creasing nor strictly decreasing. As x approaches 0 from the left, f (x) decreases without
bound, and as x approaches 0 from the right, f (x) increases without bound.

Graph

15
 f (x) f (x) = 1
4 x

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

−4

2.8 Reciprocal Squared Functions

1
A reciprocal squared function is a function defined by f (x) = x2
, where x ̸= 0.
Important Properties

1. Domain: The domain of a reciprocal squared function is all real numbers except x = 0,
denoted as (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

2. Range: The range of a reciprocal squared function is all positive real numbers, denoted
as (0, ∞).

3. Y-Intercept: The y-intercept of a reciprocal squared function occurs when x = 0, but

since x cannot be 0, there is no y-intercept.

4. X-Intercept (Zeros of the function): The x-intercepts of a reciprocal squared

function occur when f (x) = 0, which is not possible for f (x) = x12 .

5. Vertical Asymptotes: Reciprocal squared functions have a vertical asymptotes at

x = 0.

6. Horizontal Asymptotes: Reciprocal squared functions have a horizontal asymptote

at y = 0 as x approaches positive or negative infinity.

7. Continuity and Differentiability: Reciprocal squared functions are continuous and

differentiable on their domain.

8. Increasing or Decreasing Function: Reciprocal squared functions are strictly in-

creasing for positive x and strictly decreasing for negative x.

Graph

16
 5
f (x) f (x) = 1
x2
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

2.9 Exponential Functions

Definition: An exponential function is of the form f (x) = a·bx , where a and b are constants.
Example: Consider the exponential function f (x) = 2 · 3x . Here, a = 5 and b = 3.
Graph:

100
f (x) = 5 · 3x
80

60
f (x)

40

20

0
−4 −2 0 2 4
x

Important Properties

• Domain: The domain of an exponential function f (x) = ax is all real numbers,

(−∞, ∞).

• Range: The range of an exponential function depends on the value of the base a. If
a > 0, the range is (0, ∞). If 0 < a < 1, the range is (0, 1). If a < 0, the range is not
defined for all real numbers.

17
• Y-Intercept: The y-intercept of an exponential function occurs when x = 0, so it is
(0, 1) if a > 0.
• Increasing or Decreasing Function:
– If a > 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is increasing as x increases.
– If 0 < a < 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is decreasing as x increases.
• Asymptote: The graph of an exponential function approaches the x-axis (y = 0) as
x approaches negative or positive infinity.
• Exponential Growth and Decay: Exponential functions with a > 1 represent
exponential growth, while those with 0 < a < 1 represent exponential decay.
• Special Cases: The exponential function f (x) = ex , where e is Euler’s number (ap-
proximately 2.71828), is called the natural exponential function. It has unique prop-
erties and applications in calculus and mathematical modeling.
Graph
5
f (x) f (x) = ex
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

Properties of Exponents
1. Product Rule: am × an = am+n
am
2. Quotient Rule: an
= am−n
3. Power of a Power Rule: (am )n = am×n
4. Negative Exponent Rule: a−m = 1
am

5. Zero Exponent Rule: a0 = 1

6. Exponent of 1 Rule: a1 = a
m √
n
7. Exponent of a Fraction Rule: a n = am

18
2.10 Logarithmic Function
A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function. It represents the power to
which a base must be raised to produce a given number. Graph

2 y
y = ln(x)

x
1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

Definition
The logarithm of a positive real number x with base b, denoted as logb (x), is the exponent
to which b must be raised to produce x.
Let a be a positive real number, a ̸= 1, and x and y be positive real numbers.

Basic Logarithmic Properties

1. Definition: The logarithm of x with base a is denoted by loga (x) and is defined as
the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x.

2. Logarithmic Form: y = loga (x) is equivalent to x = ay .

3. Domain: The domain of loga (x) is x > 0.

4. Range: The range of loga (x) is all real numbers.

5. Graph: The graph of loga (x) is a curve that approaches the y-axis as x approaches
infinity and goes to negative infinity as x approaches zero.

6. Vertical Asymptote: The line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote for loga (x).

Logarithmic Properties

1. Product Rule: loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y)

 
2. Quotient Rule: loga xy = loga (x) − loga (y)

3. Power Rule: loga (xn ) = n · loga (x)

19
 logb (x)
4. Change of Base Formula: loga (x) = logb (a)

5. Inverse Property: loga (ax ) = x

6. Identity Property: loga (1) = 0

1


7. Negative Exponent Property: loga x
= − loga (x)

2.11 Modulus Function

The modulus function, also known as the absolute value function, is a mathematical function
that returns the magnitude or distance of a number from zero. It is denoted by |x| and defined
as follows:
(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
In other words, the modulus function returns the positive value of a number if it is
positive or zero, and the negative value of a number if it is negative.
Important Properties

1. Domain: The domain of the modulus function is all real numbers.

2. Range: The range of the modulus function is all non-negative real numbers, i.e.,
[0, ∞).

3. Symmetry: The modulus function is symmetric about the y-axis.

4. Piecewise Definition: The modulus function can be defined using a piecewise func-
tion as shown above.

5. Graph: The graph of the modulus function is a V-shaped curve with its vertex at the
origin.

6. Absolute Difference: The modulus function can be used to represent the absolute
difference between two numbers. For example, |a − b| represents the absolute difference
between a and b.

Graph: f (x) = |x − 2|

20
 4 y
|x − 2|

x
−2 2 4 6

2.12 Sigmoid Function

The sigmoid function is a mathematical function that maps any real-valued number to a
value between 0 and 1. It is commonly used in machine learning and neural networks as an
activation function.
Definition
The most commonly used sigmoid function is the logistic sigmoid function, defined as:
1
σ(x) =
1 + e−x
where e is the base of the natural logarithm.
Important Properties

1. Domain: The domain of the sigmoid function is all real numbers, (−∞, ∞).

2. Range: The range of the sigmoid function is (0, 1).

3. S-Shaped Curve: The graph of the sigmoid function is an S-shaped curve that
approaches 0 as x approaches negative infinity and approaches 1 as x approaches
positive infinity.

4. Differentiability: The sigmoid function is differentiable for all real numbers.

5. Monotonicity: The sigmoid function is monotonically increasing on its entire domain.

6. Centered at Zero: The logistic sigmoid function is centered at zero, with its midpoint
at x = 0.

7. Sigmoid Derivative: The derivative of the sigmoid function with respect to x is given
by:

21
 σ ′ (x) = σ(x)(1 − σ(x))

This derivative is often used in the backpropagation algorithm for training neural
networks.

Graph f (x) = 1/(1 + exp(−x))

1
σ(x) σ(x)
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

2.13 Signum (Sign) Function

The signum function, denoted as sgn(x) or sign(x), is a mathematical function that returns
the sign of a real number x. It returns:

−1 if x < 0

sgn(x) = 0 if x = 0

1 if x > 0


In other words, the signum function returns -1 for negative numbers, 0 for zero, and 1
for positive numbers.

Properties
1. Domain: The domain of the signum function is all real numbers.

2. Range: The range of the signum function is {−1, 0, 1}.

3. Graph: The graph of the signum function is a piecewise constant function with hori-
zontal lines at y = −1 for x < 0, y = 0 for x = 0, and y = 1 for x > 0.

4. Symmetry: The signum function is an odd function, meaning sgn(−x) = −sgn(x) for
all x.

22
5. Differentiability: The signum function is not differentiable at x = 0, as it has a sharp
corner at this point.

6. Derivative: The derivative of the signum function is not defined at x = 0, but

elsewhere it is 0, as the function is constant in those regions.

Graph

sgn(x) sgn(x)
1

x
−2 −1 1 2

−1

23
3 Limit
Limit of a Function
The limit of a function describes the behavior of the function as the input approaches a
certain value. It is a fundamental concept in calculus and is denoted as limx→c f (x), where
c is the value the input approaches.

Definition
The limit of a function f (x) as x approaches c is the value L such that for every positive
number ε, there exists a positive number δ such that if 0 < |x − c| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
In symbols:
lim f (x) = L
x→c

if and only if

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − c| < δ

Properties
• If the limit of a function exists at a point, then the function is continuous at that point.

• The limit of a sum, difference, product, or quotient of functions can be computed using
the limits of the individual functions, provided the limits exist.

• The limit of a constant times a function is equal to the constant times the limit of the
function.

• The limit of a composition of functions can be computed by taking the limit of the
outer function and then the limit of the inner function, provided the limits exist.

Examples
1. Example 1: Find limx→2 (x2 − 4x + 4).
Solution: We can factor the expression as (x − 2)2 . Since (x − 2)2 is continuous
everywhere, the limit as x approaches 2 is (2 − 2)2 = 0.
sin(x)
2. Example 2: Find limx→0 x
.
Solution: This is a famous limit known as the Sine Limit. Using L’Hôpital’s Rule or
other methods, we find that the limit is 1.

24
 In calculus, the concept of a limit is fundamental to understanding the behavior of func-
tions as they approach specific points. A limit represents the value that a function approaches
as its input (independent variable) gets arbitrarily close to a certain value. We denote the
limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a limit point c as follows:

lim f (x) = L
x→c

This means that as x gets very close to c, the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L.

Basic Limit Rules

There are several basic rules that help us evaluate limits:

1. The Limit of a Constant:

lim k = k
x→c

where k is a constant.

2. The Limit of a Sum or Difference:

lim[f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x)

x→c x→c x→c

25
3. The Limit of a Product:

lim[f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x)

x→c x→c x→c

4. The Limit of a Quotient:

f (x) limx→c f (x)

lim = , if lim g(x) ̸= 0
x→c g(x) limx→c g(x) x→c

Limits of Trigonometry Functions:

1. limx→0 sin x = 0

2. limx→0 cos x = 1

tan x
3. limx→0 x
=1

sin x
4. limx→0 x
=1

sin−1 x
5. limx→0 x
=1

tan−1 x
6. limx→0 x
=1
sin x
7. limx→∞ x
=0
1
8. limx→0 (cosx + asinbx) x = eab
1
8. limx→0 (cosx + asinbx) x = eab

a2
9. limx→0 ( 1−cos(ax)
x
= 2

Limits of form 1∞ :
1
1. limx→0 (1 + x) x = e
1
2. limx→0 (1 + ax) x = ea

3. limx→∞ (1 + x1 )x = e

3. limx→∞ (1 + xa )x = ea

Limits of Log and Exponential Functions

26
 1. limx→0 ex = 1

ex −1
2. limx→0 x
=1

emx −1
3. limx→0 mx
=m

ax −1
4. limx→0 x
= loge a

log(1+x)
5. limx→0 x
=1
xn −an
6. limx→a x−a
= nan−1
x +bx 1 √
7. limx→a ( a 2
)x = ab

L’Hospital’s Rule: (Very very important for GATE Exam)

We apply L’Hospital’s Rule to the limit, if we get the limit in the following form (Indeterminate
forms):
0 ∞
, , 0.∞, ∞ − ∞, 0∞ , 1∞ , ∞0
0 ∞

0 ∞
Try to convert all in indeterminate form into 0
or ∞
, then only you can apply L’Hospital’s
Rule.
′
If limx→a fg(x)
(x) ∞
is form 00 or ∞ , then limx→a fg(x)
(x)
= fg′ (x)
(x)
.
Note:
1. If limx→a f (x)exists then it is unique.
2. If f(x) is a polynomial function then limx→a f (x) = f (a)

27
4 Continuity
• Continuity of a function at a point:
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at = a if it satisfies the following conditions
(i) f (a) is defined
(ii) limx→a f (x) exists i.e limx→a− f (x) = limx→a+ f (x)
(iii) limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)

• Left continuous (or) continuity from the left at a point:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the left (or) left continuous at x = a if
(i) f (a) is defined
(ii) limx→a− f (x) = f (a)

• Right continuous (or) continuity from the right at a point:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the right (or) right continuous at x = aif
(i) f (a) is defined
(ii) limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)

• Continuity of a function in an open interval:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) if f (x) is continuous
∀x ∈ (a, b) (or) limx→c f (x) = f (c) ∀c ∈ (a, b).

• Continuity of a function on closed interval:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous on closed interval [a, b] if
(i) f (x) is continuous ∀x ∈ (a, b)
(ii) limx→a+ f (x) = f (a)
(iii)limx→b− f (x) = f (b)

Important Points:

1. If f(x) and g(x) are two continuous functions then f (x) + g(x), f (x) − g(x), f (x).g(x)
and fg(x)
(x)
̸ 0) are also continuous.
(:: g(x) =

2. Polynomial function, exponential function, sine and cosine functions, and modulus
function are continuous everywhere.

3. Logarithmic functions are continuous in (0, ∞)

4. Let the functions f and g be continuous at a point x = x0 then,

(i) cf, f ± g and f.g are continuous at x = x0 , where c is any constant.
(ii) fg is continuous at x = x0 , if g(x0 ) ̸= 0

28
5. If f is continuous at x = x0 and g is continuous at f (x0 ) then the composite function
g(f (g)) is continuous at x = x0 .

6. If f is continuous at an interior point c of a closed interval [a, b] and f (c) ̸= 0, then

there exists a neighbourhood of c, throughout which f (x) has the same sign as f (c).

7. If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] then it is bounded there and attains its
bounds at least once in [a, b].

8. If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b], and if f (a)andf (b) are of opposite signs,
then there exists at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = 0.

9. If f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] and f (a) ̸= f (b) then it assumes every value
between f (a) and f (b).

29
5 Differentiability
f(x) is said to be differentiable at the point x = a if the derivative f ‘(a) exists at every point
in its domain. It is given by
f (a+h)−f (a)
limh→0 h

Important Note:

1. If the derivative of f (x) exists at x = a then the function f (x) is said to be differentiable
function at x = a.

2. f l (a) exists at x = a ⇐⇒ Lf l (a) = Rf l (a).

3. If f (x) and g(x) are two differentiable functions then f (x)+g(x), f (x)−g(x), f (x).g(x),
f (x)
g(x)
..(g(x) ̸= 0) are also differentiable.

4. Polynomial functions, exponential functions, sine and cosine functions are differentiable
every where.

5. Every differentiable function is continuous but a continuous function need not be dif-
ferentiable.

Derivability of a function in an open interval:

A function f (x) is said to be derivable (or) differentiable in an open interval (a, b) if f l (c)
exists ∀c ∈ (a, b).

Derivability of a function on closed interval:

A function f (x) is said to be derivable (or) differentiable on closed interval [a, b] i. if f l (c)
exists ∀c ∈ (a, b)
ii. Rf l (a) exists
iii. Lf l (b) exists.

30
6 Taylor Series
Letf (x) be a function which is differentiable at x = a, Then the Taylor series expansion of
f (x) about the point x = a:

f ′ (a) f ′′ (a) f ′′′ (a) f n (a)

f (x) = f (a) + 1!
(x − a) + 2!
(x − a)2 + 3!
(x − a)3 + . . . .... + n!
(x − a)n

Maclaurin Series:
If the Taylor Series is centred at 0, then the series is known as the Maclaurin series. It means
that,
If a = 0 in the Taylor series, then we get;

f (x) = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + f ”(0)

2!
x2 + f ”‘(0)
3!
x3 + . . . .
This is known as the Maclaurin series.

31
32
33
7 Maxima and Minima
Maxima and minima for functions of one variable:-

Local or relative maximum:

A function f(x) is said to have a Maximum at x = c if there exists δ > 0
such that |x − c| < δ =⇒ f (x) ≤ f (c).

Local or relative minimum:

A function f(x) is said to have a minimum at x = c if there exists δ > 0
such that |x − c| < δ =⇒ f (x) ≥ f (c).

Stationary points:
The values of x for which f (x) = 0 are called stationary points or turning points.

Stationary values:
A function f (x) is said to be stationary at x = a if f ′ (a) = 0 and f (a) is a stationary value.

Extreme point:
The point at which the function has a maximum or a minimum is called an extreme point.

Extreme values:
The values of the function at extreme points are called extreme values (Extrema).

Point of inflection:
The point at which a curve crosses its tangents is called the point of inflection.
The function f (x) has neither maximum nor minimum at the point of inflection.
Note:
1. A necessary condition for a function to have an extreme value at x = a is f ′ (a) = 0.
2. f ′ (a) = 0 is only a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for f (a) to be an
extreme value of f (x).
3. Every extreme point is a stationary point but every static lary point need not be an
extreme point.
Absolute or Global maximum/minimum :
The absolute maximum/minimum values of the function f (x) in ie closed interval [a, b] are
given by
1. Absolute maximum value
= max (f (a), f (b), all local maximum values of f )
= greatest value of f (x) in [a, b].
2. Absolute minimum value
= min (f (a), f (b), all local minimum values of f )
= least value of f (x) in [a, b].

34
 Working Rule to find maxima and minima:
Let f (x) be the given function
Step 1: Find f ′ (x)
Step 2: Equate f ′ (x) to zero to obtain the stationary points.
Step 3: Find f ′′ (x) at each stationary point.

• If f (x0 ) > 0 then f (x) has a minimum at x = x0

• If f ′′ (x0 ) < 0 then f (x) has a maximum at x = x0

• If f (x0 ) = 0 then f (x) may (or) may not have extremum.

In this case, check for maxima and minima using the changes in sign of f(x) as given
below.
1. For x < x0 if f ′ (x) < 0 and x > x0 if f ′ (x) > 0 then f (x0 ) is a minimum value of f (x).
2. For x < x0 if f ′ (x) > 0 and x > x0 if f (x) < 0 then f (x0 ) is a maximum value of f (x).
3. For x < x0 and x > x0 if f ′ (x) > 0 (or) f ′ (x) < 0 then f (x0 ) is not an extremum.

Maxima and minima for functions of two variables:

Let z = f (x, y) be the function of two variables for which maxima or minima is to be obtained.

Working Rule:
Step1: Find p, q, r, s and t
Step2: Equate p and q to zero for obtaining stationary points.
Step3: Find r, s and t at each stationary point.
i) If rt − s2 > 0 and r > 0 then f (x, y) has a minimum at that stationary point.
ii) If rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0 then f (x, y) has a maximum at that stationary point.
iii) If rt − s2 < 0 then f (x, y) has no extremum at that stationary point and such points are
called saddle points.
iv) If rt − s2 = 0 then the case is undecided.

35