Module 2

IoT Sensing and Actuation

2.1 Introduction
• A major chunk of IoT applications involves sensing and actuation. Almost all the
applications in IoT-sensing forms the first step and actuation forms the final step.

• The basic science of sensing and actuation is based on the process of transduction.
Transduction is the process of energy conversion from one form to another. A
transducer is a physical means of enabling transduction.

• Transducers take energy in any form (for which it is designed)—electrical, mechanical,

chemical, light, sound, and others—and convert it into another, which may be electrical,
mechanical, chemical, light, sound, and others

• Sensors and actuators are deemed(considered) as transducers.

• For example, in a public announcement (PA) system, a microphone (input device)

converts sound waves into electrical signals, which is amplified by an amplifier system
(a process). Finally, a loudspeaker (output device) outputs this into audible sounds by
converting the amplified electrical signals back into sound waves.

2.1.1 Comparison between Sensors, Actuators and Transducer

2.2 Sensors

• Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the ambient changes in
their environment or within the intended zone of their deployment.

• They generate responses to external stimuli or physical phenomenon through

characterization of the input functions (which are these external stimuli) and their
conversion into typically electrical signals.

• For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or

atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer.

2.2.1 Features of Sensors

i. Sensor is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., a temperature sensor only senses
the ambient temperature of a room).

ii. It is insensitive to any other property besides what it is designed to detect (e.g., a
temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing the
temperature).

iii. Finally, a sensor does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the
temperature does not reduce or increase the temperature).

2.2.2 Outline of Sensing Task

Figure 5.1 shows the simple outline of a sensing task. Here, a temperature sensor keeps on
checking an environment for changes. In the event of a fire, the temperature of the environment
goes up. The temperature sensor notices this change in the temperature of the room and
promptly communicates this information to a remote monitor via the processor.

Typical block diagram of Sensor Node in IoT:

A sensor node is made up of a combination of sensor/sensors, a processor unit, a radio unit,

and a power unit. The nodes are capable of sensing the environment they are set to measure
and communicate the information to other sensor nodes or a remote server. Typically, a sensor
node should have low-power requirements and be wireless.
This enables them to be deployed in a vast range of scenarios and environments without the
constant need for changing their power sources or managing wires.

2.2.3 Types of Sensors

The various sensors can be classified based on:

1. Power Requirements
2. Sensor Output
3. Property to be Measured

1. Power Requirements

The way sensors operate decides the power requirements that must be provided for an
IoT implementation. depending on the requirements of power, sensors can be of two
types:

i. Active: Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or mechanism to provide it

with power. It directly responds to the external stimuli from its ambient environment
and converts it into an output signal. For example, a photodiode converts light into
electrical impulses.

ii. Passive: Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power them up. The sensed
properties are modulated with the sensor’s inherent characteristics to generate patterns
in the output of the sensor. For example, a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by
applying voltage difference across it or passing a current through it.

2. Sensor Output

The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components to be integrated

with an IoT node or system.
 Typically, almost all modern-day processors are digital; digital sensors can be directly
integrated to the processors.

However, the integration of analog sensors to these digital processors or IoT nodes
requires additional interfacing mechanisms such as analog to digital converters (ADC).

Sensors are broadly divided into two types, depending on the type of output generated
from these sensors, as follows.

i. Analog: Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is

proportional (linearly or non-linearly) to the quantity being measured and is
continuous in time and amplitude. Physical quantities such as temperature,
speed, pressure, displacement, strain, and others are all continuous and
categorized as analog quantities. For example, a thermometer or a thermocouple
can be used for measuring the temperature of a liquid (e.g., in household water
heaters).

ii. Digital: These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital representation
(time, or amplitude, or both) of a quantity being measured, in the form of output
signals or voltages

3. Measured Property:

The property of the environment being measured by the sensors can be crucial in
deciding the number of sensors in an IoT implementation. Some properties to be
measured do not show high spatial variations and can be quantified only based on
temporal variations in the measured property, such as ambient temperature,
atmospheric pressure, and others. Whereas some properties to be measured show high
spatial as well as temporal variations such as sound, image, and others.

Depending on the properties to be measured, sensors can be of two types:

i. Scalar: Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the

quantity being measured. Scalar physical quantities are those where only the
magnitude of the signal is sufficient for describing or characterizing the
phenomenon and information generation. Examples of such measurable
physical quantities include colour, pressure, temperature, strain, and others.

ii. Vector: Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the direction
and/or orientation of the property they are measuring. Physical quantities such
as velocity and images that require additional information besides their
magnitude. Measuring such quantities are undertaken using vector sensors. For
example, an electronic gyroscope.

2.2.4 Sensor Characteristics

Sensors can be characterized by their ability to sense the phenomenon based on the following
three fundamental properties:
 • Sensor Resolution: The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor can
detect is referred to as the resolution of a sensor. For digital sensors, the smallest change
in the digital output that the sensor is capable of quantifying is its sensor resolution.
The more the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is the precision. A sensor’s
accuracy does not depend upon its resolution. For example, a temperature sensor A can
detect up to 0:5_ C changes in temperature; whereas another sensor B can detect up to
0:25_ C changes in temperature. Therefore, the resolution of sensor B is higher than the
resolution of sensor A.

• Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure the
environment of a system as close to its true measure as possible. For example, a weight
sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say that this sensor is
99:98% accurate, with an error rate of _0:02%.

• Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor. Only
if, upon multiple repetitions, the sensor is found to have the same error rate, can it be
deemed as highly precise. For example, consider if the same weight sensor described
earlier reports measurements of 98.28 kg, 100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg upon three repeat
measurements for a mass of actual weight of 100 kg. Here, the sensor precision is not
deemed high because of significant variations in the temporal measurements for the
same object under the same conditions.

2.2.5 Sensorial Deviation

In this section, we will discuss the various sensorial deviations that are considered as errors in
sensors such as:

• Sensitivity Error: The measurement range between a sensor’s characterized minimum

and maximum values is also referred to as the full scale range of that sensor. Under real
conditions, the sensitivity of a sensor may differ from the value specified for that sensor
leading to sensitivity error.

• Offset error or Bias: If the output of a sensor differs from the actual value to be
measured by a constant, the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias. For example,
while measuring an actual temperature of 0 degree C, a temperature sensor outputs 1.1
degree C. every time. In this case, the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias of
1.1 degree C.

• Drift: If the output signal of a sensor changes slowly and independently of the
measured property, this behaviour of the sensor’s output is termed as drift. Physical
changes in the sensor or its material may result in long-term drift, which can span over
months or years

• Hysteresis Error: If a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the sensor’s

previous input values, it is referred to as hysteresis error. The present output of the
sensor depends on the past input values provided to the sensor. Typically, the
phenomenon of hysteresis can be observed in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, and
during heating of metal strips.
 • Quantization Error: If the digital output of a sensor is an approximation of the
measured property, it induces quantization error. This error can be defined as the
difference between the actual analog signal and its closest digital approximation during
the sampling stage of the analog to digital conversion.

• Aliasing Error: This error can be defined as the difference between the actual analog
signal and its closest digital approximation during the sampling stage of the analog to
digital conversion

• Environmental Factor: The environment itself plays a crucial role in inducing

sensorial deviations. Some sensors may be prone to external influences, which may not
be directly linked to the property being measured by the sensor. This sensitivity of the
sensor may lead to deviations in its output values. For example, as most sensors are
semiconductor based, they are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

2.2.6 Types of Sensing

Sensing can be broadly divided into four different categories based on the nature of the
environment being sensed and the physical sensors being used to do so are:

i. Scalar sensing,
ii. Multimedia sensing,
iii. Hybrid sensing, and
iv. Virtual sensing

i. Scalar Sensing: Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be
quantified simply by measuring changes in the amplitude of the measured values
with respect to time. Quantities such as ambient temperature, current, atmospheric
pressure, rainfall, light, humidity, flux, and others are considered as scalar values
as they normally do not have a directional or spatial property assigned with them.
Simply measuring the changes in their values with passing time provides enough
information about these quantities. The sensors used for measuring these scalar
quantities are referred to as scalar sensors, and the act is known as scalar sensing.
Figures 5.3(b), 5.3(d), 5.3(e), 5.3(f), 5.3(g), 5.3(h), 5.3(i), and 5.3(j) show scalar
sensors. A simple scalar temperature sensing of a fire detection event is shown in
Figure 5.4(a).
ii. Multimedia sensing

Multimedia sensing encompasses the sensing of features that have a spatial variance
property associated with the property of temporal variance. Unlike scalar sensors,
multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of a quantifiable
property concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal). Quantities such as
images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound, force, mass, energy, and
momentum have both directions as well as a magnitude. They might have different
values in different directions for the same working condition at the same time. The
sensors used for measuring these quantities are known as vector sensors. Figures
5.3(a) and 5.3(c) are vector sensors. A simple camera-based multimedia sensing
using surveillance as an example is shown in Figure 5.4(b).

iii. Hybrid sensing

The act of using scalar as well as multimedia sensing at the same time is referred to
as hybrid sensing. Many a time, there is a need to measure certain vector as well as
scalar properties of an environment at the same time. Under these conditions, a
range of various sensors are employed (from the collection of scalar as well as
multimedia sensors) to measure the various properties of that environment at any
instant of time.

For example, in an agricultural field, it is required to measure the soil conditions at

regular intervals of time to determine plant health. Sensors such as soil moisture
and soil temperature are deployed underground to estimate the soil’s water retention
capacity and the moisture being held by the soil at any instant of time. However,
this setup only determines whether the plant is getting enough water or not.

There may be a host of other factors besides water availability, which may affect a
plant’s health. The additional inclusion of a camera sensor with the plant may be
able to determine the actual condition of a plant by additionally determining the
color of leaves.

The aggregate information from soil moisture, soil temperature, and the camera
sensor will be able to collectively determine a plant’s health at any instant of time.
 Other common examples of hybrid sensing include smart parking systems, traffic
management systems, and others. Figure 5.4(c) shows an example of hybrid
sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor are collectively used to detect
and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

iv. Virtual Sensing

Many a time, there is a need for very dense and large-scale deployment of sensor
nodes spread over a large area for monitoring of parameters. One such domain is
agriculture.

Here, often, the parameters being measured, such as soil moisture, soil temperature,
and water level, do not show significant spatial variations.

Hence, if sensors are deployed in the fields of farmer A, it is highly likely that the
measurements from his sensors will be able to provide almost concise
measurements of his neighbour B’s fields; this is especially true of fields which are
immediately surrounding A’s fields. In short, A ’s sensors are being used for actual
measurement of parameters; whereas virtual data (which does not have actual
physical sensors but uses extrapolation-based measurements) is being used for
advising B. This is the virtual sensing paradigm.

2.2.7 Sensing Considerations

The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either make or break the
feasibility of an IoT deployment. The following major factors influence the choice of
sensors in IoT-based sensing solutions:
1) Sensing range,
2) Accuracy and Precision,
3) Energy, and
4) Device size. These factors are discussed as follows:

1) Sensing Range: The sensing range of a sensor node defines the detection capability of
that node. Typical approaches for the sensing range in deployments include fixed k-
coverage and dynamic k-coverage. Fixed k-coverage uses static sensors and mainly
for pre event detection. In contrast, dynamic k-coverage incorporates mobile sensor
nodes post detection of an event, which, however, is a costly solution and may not be
deployable in all operational areas and terrains.
Additionally, the sensing range of a sensor may also be used to signify the
upper and lower bounds of a sensor’s measurement range. For example, a proximity
sensor has a typical sensing range of a couple of meters. In contrast, a camera has a
sensing range varying between tens of meters to hundreds of meters. As the complexity
of the sensor and its sensing range goes up, its cost significantly increases.

2) Accuracy and Precision: The accuracy and precision of measurements provided by a

sensor are critical in deciding the operations of specific functional processes. Typically,
day-to-day consumer sensors are low on requirements and often very cheap. However,
their performance is limited to regular application domains. For example, a standard
temperature sensor. Standard temperature sensors have a very low-temperature sensing
range, as well as relatively low accuracy and precision. The use of these sensors in
 industrial applications, where a precision of up to 3–4 decimal places is required, cannot
be facilitated by these sensors. Industrial sensors are typically very sophisticated, and
as a result, very costly. However, these industrial sensors have very high accuracy and
precision score, even under harsh operating conditions.

3) Energy:

The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to determine the lifetime of that
solution and the estimated cost of its deployment.

If the sensor or the sensor node is so energy inefficient that it requires replenishment of
its energy sources quite frequently, the effort in maintaining the solution and its cost
goes up; whereas its deployment feasibility goes down.

4) Device Size

Modern-day IoT applications have a wide penetration in all domains of life. Most of
the applications of IoT require sensing solutions which are so small that they do not
hinder any of the regular activities that were possible before the sensor node
deployment was carried out. Larger the size of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction
caused by it, higher is the cost and lesser the energy efficiency.

2.3 Actuators

2.3.1 Introduction

An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can affect the
movement or control the said mechanism or the system.

The two inputs to actuators are: Energy and Control Signals.

Control signals helps actuator in understanding what action to perform and energy provides
required power to act upon the input control signals.

The control system of an actuator can be a mechanical or electronic system, a software-based

system (e.g., an autonomous car control system), a human, or any other input.

Figure 5.5 shows the outline of a simple actuation system. A remote user sends commands to
a processor. The processor instructs a motor controlled robotic arm to perform the commanded
tasks accordingly. The processor is primarily responsible for converting the human commands
into sequential machine-language command sequences, which enables the robot to move. The
robotic arm finally moves the designated boxes, which was its assigned task.
2.3.1 Actuator Types

Broadly, actuators can be divided into seven classes: 1) Hydraulic, 2) pneumatic, 3) electrical,
4) thermal/magnetic, 5) mechanical, 6) soft, and 7) shape memory polymers.

1) Hydraulic actuators

A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of

fluids. These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads through the use
of hydraulic power derived from fluids cylinders or fluid motors. The mechanical
motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is converted to either linear, rotary, or oscillatory
motion. The almost incompressible property of liquids is used in hydraulic
actuators for exerting significant force. The actuator’s limited acceleration restricts
its usage.

2) Pneumatic Actuator:

A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of

gases. These actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at high pressure and convert it
into either linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are commonly
used for valve controls of water pipes. Pneumatic brakes are an example of this type of
actuator which is so responsive that they can convert small pressure changes applied by
drives to generate the massive force required to stop or slow down a moving vehicle.

3) Electric Actuator:

Typically, electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by generating

mechanical torque. This generated torque is translated into the motion of a motor’s
shaft or for switching (as in relays). For example, actuating equipment’s such as
solenoid valves control the flow of water in pipes in response to electrical signals. This
class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy actuator types
available.

4) Thermal and Magnetic Actuator:

The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this class of actuators.
These actuators have a very high power density and are typically compact, lightweight,
and economical. One classic example of thermal actuators is shape memory materials
(SMMs) such as shape memory alloys (SMAs). These actuators do not require
electricity for actuation. They are not affected by vibration and can work with liquid or
gases. Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic actuators.

5) Mechanical Actuator:

In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear
motion to execute some movement. The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and other
devices are necessary for these actuators to operate. These actuators can be easily used
in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators. They can also work in
 a standalone mode. The best example of a mechanical actuator is Rack and Pinion
mechanism.

6) Soft actuators

They consists of elastomeric polymers that are used as embedded fixtures in flexible
materials such as cloth, paper, fiber, particles, and others The conversion of molecular
level microscopic changes into tangible macroscopic deformations is the primary
working principle of this class of actuators. These actuators have a high stake in
modern-day robotics.

7) Shape Memory Polymers

Shape memory polymers (SMP) are considered as smart materials that respond to some
external stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original shape once
the affecting stimulus is removed. Features such as high strain recovery,
biocompatibility, low density, and biodegradability characterize these materials. SMP-
based actuators function similar to our muscles.

Photopolymer/light-activated polymers (LAP) are a particular type of SMP, which

require light as a stimulus to operate. LAP-based actuators are characterized by their
rapid response times. Using only the variation of light frequency or its intensity, LAPs
can be controlled remotely without any physical contact.

2.3.3 Actuator Characteristics

The choice or selection of actuators is crucial in an IoT deployment, where a control

mechanism is required after sensing and processing of the information obtained from
the sensed environment. A set of four characteristics can define all actuators:

1) Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope. For example, the
use of heavier actuators is generally preferred for industrial applications and
applications requiring no mobility of the IoT deployment. In contrast, lightweight
actuators typically find common usage in portable systems in vehicles, drones, and
home IoT applications.

2) Power Rating: This helps in deciding the nature of the application with which an
actuator can be associated. The power rating defines the minimum and maximum
operating power an actuator can safely withstand without damage to itself. Generally,
it is indicated as the power-to-weight ratio for actuators. For example, smaller servo
motors used in hobby projects typically have a maximum rating of 5 VDC, 500 mA,
which is suitable for an operations-driven battery-based power source. Exceeding this
limit might be detrimental to the performance of the actuator and may cause burnout of
the motor.

3) Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an
instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio. This indicates the sensitivity
of the actuator. Higher is the weight of the moving part; lower will be its torque to
weight ratio for a given power.
4) Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation is known
as its stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness. Stiffness
can be directly related to the modulus of elasticity of that material. Stiff systems are
considered more accurate than compliant systems as they have a faster response to the
change in load applied to it. For example, hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and
non-compliant, whereas pneumatic systems are considered as compliant.