History of Development and underdevelopment

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What is Development?
Development is the process of improving the quality of life for people. It
includes reducing poverty, inequality, and unemployment, and making
sure everyone benefits from a country’s growth. Let’s explore the ideas
of development:

Key Points on Development

1.​ Development as Eradicating Poverty, Inequality, and
Unemployment​
Development means ensuring that as a country becomes wealthier,
everyone, especially the poor and disadvantaged, benefits equally.
2.​ Fair Redistribution of Wealth​
When a country grows economically, the wealth should be shared
fairly so that all people, especially the underprivileged, can have a
better life.
3.​ Multidimensional Process​
Development is not just about money. It includes:
○​ Economic growth (producing more goods and services).
○​ Changing society, attitudes, and institutions.
○​ Ensuring fair distribution of resources and opportunities.
[
Why Are Some Countries Rich While Others Are Poor?
There are three main theories about this:
1. Geography Hypothesis
This theory suggests that location and climate affect a country’s
development.
 ●​ Older Views (Montesquieu): People in tropical areas are less
productive because of the hot climate and are more likely to have
unstable governments.
●​ Modern View (Jeffrey Sachs): Challenges the idea that climate
directly causes poverty. Instead, issues like diseases (e.g., malaria)
and poor soil in tropical regions affect development.
●​ Criticism:
○​ Neighboring countries with the same geography, like North
and South Korea, can have vastly different outcomes due to
governance, not location.
○​ Advanced civilizations once existed near the equator (e.g.,
Aztecs, Incas). Colonization played a bigger role in
development than geography.

2. Cultural Hypothesis
This theory links development to a country’s culture, beliefs, and
traditions.
●​ Examples:
○​ The Protestant work ethic in Europe is credited with driving
economic growth.
○​ In contrast, some argue that African cultures resist adopting
Western technologies, which slows development.
●​ Criticism:
○​ Culture is often shaped by historical and institutional factors,
not the cause of poverty.
○​ Differences in economic success often result from systems
and policies, not cultural traits.

3. Ignorance Hypothesis
This theory says inequality exists because leaders or people don’t know
how to create wealth.
●​ Examples:
○​ Poor decisions, like building factories in unsuitable locations,
may harm an economy.
○​ However, leaders often make these decisions due to political
pressures, not lack of knowledge.
●​ Criticism:
○​ This theory oversimplifies the issue. Leaders might
knowingly make harmful decisions to maintain their power
or political support.

Conclusion
Development is a complex and multidimensional process. It cannot be
explained by a single theory like geography, culture, or ignorance.
Instead, history, institutions, and systems play a vital role in shaping a
country’s development.
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What is Development?
Development is about improving people's lives in different ways. It can
mean progress in the economy, society, culture, or individual
opportunities. Let's look at some ideas about development:

1. Modernity and Development

●​ What is Modernity?​
Modernity means being "up-to-date" with current times. But what's
modern can change depending on where you are or what time
period you're in.
●​ Modernity in Western Europe and the USA:​
These areas are seen as starting points for modern ways of living
 and working, especially with industrialization (factories and
machines) and urbanization (moving to cities).
●​ Social and Cultural Changes:​
In modern times, science and reason became more important than
religion. For example, medicine and technology improved, leading
to new ways of solving problems.
●​ Impact of Modernity:​
While it brought progress like better technology and jobs, it also
caused problems like loss of traditions, environmental harm, and
inequality.

2. Development as an Economic Process

●​ Measuring Development with Income:​
Organizations like the World Bank use money to measure
development. They divide countries into:
1.​ Low-income countries (earning $1,025 or less per person
annually).
2.​ Lower-middle-income countries ($1,026–$4,035).
3.​ Upper-middle-income countries ($4,036–$12,475).
4.​ High-income countries (above $12,475).
●​ Why Focus on Wealth?​
Wealth is often linked to better health, education, and quality of
life. For example, richer countries can build hospitals and schools.

3. Development as Human Empowerment

●​ Focus on People, Not Just Money:​
Development helps people gain confidence, learn skills, and live
dignified lives. It should reduce poverty and oppression.

4. Development as Expanding Choices

 ●​ UN's View (1991):​
Development should give people more options in life—better jobs,
education, healthcare, and a clean environment. It's about
improving quality of life, not just making more money.

Challenges in Development
●​ High Goals vs. Reality:​
The goals of development (ending poverty, promoting justice) are
great, but the actual outcomes often fall short. For example,
building schools might not help everyone equally.
●​ The Religion Analogy:​
Just like religion is more about practices than ideals, development
is about what actually happens—not just the goals.

Alternative Approaches to Development

●​ Locally-Driven Development:​
Thinkers like Mahatma Gandhi believed in small, self-reliant
communities. Villages should produce their own food, clothes, and
essentials.
●​ Basic Needs Approach (1970s):​
Focus on essentials like shelter, education, and healthcare. But
these programs sometimes lack enough funding.
●​ Development from Below:​
This approach involves communities in decision-making. NGOs
(Non-Governmental Organizations) play a big role but face
criticism for not always empowering people directly.

Human-Centered Development
●​ Broader Perspective (UN 2000/2001):​
Development is more than economic growth. It's about giving
 people the freedom to live meaningful lives and reach their full
potential.

Examples
●​ Gandhi's Vision:​
Villages growing their own food and making their own clothes.
●​ Basic Needs Approach:​
Government programs building schools and clinics in rural areas.
●​ NGO Work:​
Helping farmers with better seeds and training.
●​ Human Development Focus:​
Ensuring education teaches useful life skills.

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Terminology of Development
Development involves understanding and improving the living
conditions of people across the world. The terms we use to describe
countries and their progress have evolved over time.
1. The Power of Words

●​ Changing Labels:​
Earlier, terms like "Third World" were common, but they are now
seen as outdated or offensive. Today, we use terms like
"developing countries," "global South," or "emerging markets."
These reflect a more respectful and modern understanding of
global development.​
Example: A country labeled "developing" may receive more
foreign aid or trade opportunities but might also be seen as less
advanced.
 ●​ Impact of Labels:​
Labels shape how we perceive and treat countries. For example,
"emerging market" suggests economic potential, attracting
investors, while "developing country" might signal a need for help.

2. The Idea of the "Third World"

●​ Origin of the Term:​
After the Korean War and during the Cold War, countries were
divided into:
○​ First World: Wealthy, democratic nations like the USA.
○​ Second World: Communist nations like the Soviet Union.
○​ Third World: Newly independent countries in Asia, Africa,
and Latin America.
●​ Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):​
Many newly independent countries wanted to avoid siding with
either the USA or the Soviet Union. NAM was formed in 1961 to
promote fairness and focus on their own development.

3. The Rise of Emerging Markets

●​ Emerging Markets:​
Countries like Brazil, Russia, India, and China (known as BRICs)
grew rapidly, becoming major players in the global economy.
●​ China’s Transformation:​
Once considered a "Third World" country, China focused on
industrialization, creating jobs and reducing poverty. By 2010, its
trade and investments in Africa and Asia made it a global
economic leader.
●​ Global Influence:​
The rise of BRICs challenged traditional Western-led systems like
 the G7. New groups like the G20 include these rising powers,
shifting global power dynamics.
4. Criticism and Challenges of Labels
●​ Criticism of Labels:
○​ Terms like "developing" or "Third World" often oversimplify
complex realities.
○​ For example, a "developing country" might have advanced
technology or cultural richness that isn't reflected by the
label.
●​ Ongoing Challenges:​
Many countries in the global South still struggle with poverty,
inequality, and limited access to education and healthcare.

5. A Changing World
●​ From "Third World" to "Global South":​
After the Cold War, terms like "Third World" were replaced by
"global South." This acknowledges the diversity and potential of
these countries.
●​ BRICs and Global Power:​
The rise of emerging markets like China and India shows that
traditional divisions between rich and poor countries no longer
apply. These nations now shape global policies and challenge
Western dominance.

Concluding Thoughts
The world is no longer divided into simple categories like "rich" and
"poor" countries. Emerging markets have become powerful players,
creating new rules and influencing global systems. While challenges
remain, the evolving global landscape offers opportunities for greater
inclusivity and fairness.
Lec-07
The Invention of Underdevelopment
Introduction to President Truman’s "Point Four" Program
●​ Background:
1.​ In 1949, President Harry Truman gave a famous speech
introducing the "Point Four" program.
2.​ This marked a new way of thinking about how rich countries
like the U.S. could help poorer countries.
3.​ Instead of just giving money or using military force, the
focus was on sharing knowledge, skills, and technology.
●​ Key Points in Truman’s Speech:
1.​ Support for the United Nations to promote peace and
cooperation.
2.​ Help Europe recover from World War II (the Marshall Plan).
3.​ Defend against the Soviet Union (leading to NATO).
4.​The Fourth Point: Share technical knowledge with poorer
nations to improve agriculture, education, and health.
Why the Program Was Important
●​ The world was changing after World War II:
○​ Many countries, like India and Indonesia, had just gained
independence.
○​ These countries faced problems like poverty, poor health, and
low food supplies.
○​ The U.S. used Point Four to help these nations grow while
preventing the spread of communism.
●​ What the Program Did:
○​ U.S. experts trained farmers to grow more crops.
○​ Doctors and healthcare workers helped fight diseases.
 ○​ Engineers worked on improving roads, bridges, and water
systems.
○​ The focus was on teaching people how to solve problems
themselves.
Impact of the Program
●​ Positive Effects:
○​ It helped create new ways of thinking about development and
aid.
○​ It was one of the first big foreign aid programs aimed at
long-term growth.
●​ Criticism:
○​ Some said it served U.S. interests more than the countries it
helped.
○​ It took years to properly plan and implement.

The Concept of "Underdevelopment"

What Is Underdevelopment?
●​ The term "underdevelopment" became popular after Truman’s
speech.
●​ It was used to describe countries that were poor or seen as less
advanced.
Changing Ideas About Development
●​ Before, development was seen as a natural process. Truman’s
program introduced the idea that development could be actively
achieved by helping poorer nations.
●​ Countries were no longer seen as colonies but as partners who
could "catch up" with richer nations.
Problems with the Idea of Underdevelopment
●​ It ignored the history of colonization and exploitation that made
some nations rich and others poor.
 ●​ It suggested poorer nations should simply follow the path of
wealthier nations, even though their histories and needs were very
different.
How the U.S. Used Development to Gain Power
A New Form of Influence
●​ After World War II, the U.S. wanted to lead the world, not through
colonization but by promoting development.
●​ The U.S. supported decolonization to gain new allies and trade
partners.
Focusing on Economic Growth
●​ The U.S. emphasized GDP (Gross Domestic Product) as a measure
of success.
●​ This made the U.S. model of growth seem like the best path for all
countries.
Impact of This Approach
●​ Countries labeled "underdeveloped" became dependent on foreign
aid.
●​ The focus on GDP ignored other important issues like equality and
cultural differences.

Conclusion
●​ Truman’s Point Four program introduced the idea of development
as a way to reduce poverty and improve lives.
●​ However, it also created new dependencies and oversimplified the
causes of poverty.
●​ While the program aimed to promote equality and progress, it
often ignored the historical and social contexts of poorer nations.

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The International Doctrine and Institutions Take Root
Introduction
●​ After World War II, the world faced problems like poverty, hunger,
and lack of education.
●​ U.S. President Truman introduced "Point Four" in 1949, focusing
on helping poorer countries with technical and economic
assistance.
●​ This marked the beginning of organized development efforts
globally.

The Cold War and Its Impact on Development

●​ Cold War Rivalry (1950s):
○​ The U.S. (capitalist) and the Soviet Union (communist)
competed for global influence.
○​ Developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
became battlegrounds for this rivalry.
○​ Both sides offered aid and military support to gain allies.
●​ Key Events:
○​ Korean War (1950–1953): U.S. and Soviet Union supported
opposing sides.
○​ Suez Crisis (1956): A global conflict showing Cold War
tensions.
○​ UN efforts shifted towards development, as political
deadlock often blocked decisions.
●​ Effect:
○​ Development aid became a tool to win influence over newly
independent nations.

The Bandung Conference (1955)

●​ What Was It?
 ○​ Held in Indonesia, it was the first large meeting of Asian and
African nations.
○​ Aimed to promote economic cooperation and resist
colonialism and neocolonialism.
●​ Key Outcomes:
○​ Opposed colonialism and supported decolonization.
○​ Led to the Non-Aligned Movement, where countries refused
to take sides in the Cold War.
○​ Emphasized self-reliance, economic cooperation, and
development without external control.

International Development Agencies and the UN Framework

●​ UN's Role:
○​ The UN was established in 1945 to promote peace and help
nations improve their living conditions.
○​ Article 55 of the UN Charter focused on global social
progress.
●​ Agencies Created for Development:
○​ UNICEF (1946): Focused on children’s health and education.
○​ WHO (1948): Tackled global health challenges.
○​ UNDP (1965): Worked on reducing poverty and supporting
sustainable development.
●​ Key Frameworks:
○​ Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000: Focused
on poverty, education, and gender equality.
○​ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015: Introduced
broader goals addressing environmental, social, and
economic challenges.

Truman’s Point Four Program and Technical Assistance

 ●​ Focus of Point Four:
○​ Introduced technical assistance as a way to help countries
develop.
○​ Emphasized teaching skills in agriculture, healthcare, and
education.
●​ Examples of Technical Assistance:
○​ Experts taught farmers to grow more crops.
○​ Medical professionals trained local health workers.
○​ Training programs supported education and workforce
development.

Development in the 1960s: The Development Decade

●​ African Independence:
○​ Many African countries gained independence and needed
international support to build their economies.
●​ UN Initiatives:
○​ U Thant, UN Secretary-General, stressed the need for
economic growth combined with social improvements
(education, healthcare).

Trade and Development

●​ Challenges in Trade:
○​ Developing nations faced barriers like high tariffs on exports
(e.g., coffee, cotton).
●​ Efforts to Improve Trade:
○​ UNCTAD (1964): Worked to reduce trade barriers for
developing nations.
○​ Generalized System of Preferences (GSP): Allowed products
from poorer countries to enter wealthy markets with lower
tariffs.
Changing Perspectives on Development
●​ Earlier Goals:
○​ Focused on rapid economic growth and industrialization.
●​ New Understandings:
○​ Economic growth must include social progress (education,
healthcare).
○​ Addressing poverty and inequality requires long-term
strategies.

Conclusion
●​ By the 1960s, international development became more organized,
with resources and agencies addressing the needs of newly
independent nations.
●​ Development efforts shifted from short-term aid to sustainable
growth, combining economic progress with social improvements.
●​ Challenges like inequality and climate change remind us that
development is a long-term goal requiring global cooperation.
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The Evolution of Development Studies as a Social Science
What Are Development Studies (DS)?
●​ Definition:​
Development Studies is an academic field that started in the 1960s
to understand global problems like poverty, inequality, and climate
change.
○​ Traditional methods (like focusing only on numbers) were
not enough to explain these complex issues.
○​ DS combines ideas from economics, sociology, politics,
geography, and more to provide a complete picture.
 ●​ Key Goal:​
To study why some countries remain poor and unequal and how to
create better solutions for everyone.
How DS Combines Different Subjects:
1.​Economics: Looks at creating jobs and increasing incomes.
2.​Geography: Studies how climate, resources, and location impact
development.
3.​Sociology and Politics: Explores social issues like healthcare and
education and how power structures affect development.
4.​History and Anthropology: Examines cultural traditions and past
events to understand today’s challenges.

Evolution of Development Thinking

1940s: The Beginning
●​ After World War II, the idea of "development" began to emerge.
●​ U.S. President Truman’s 1949 speech emphasized helping poorer
nations develop.
●​ Geography at this time focused on colonial, military, and tropical
studies to manage empires.
1950s: Top-Down Development
●​ Development was led by experts from richer countries, using
Western models of growth.
●​ Focus was on economic theories, free trade, and large-scale
projects like rebuilding cities.
●​ Example: Growth poles were created in cities like Mumbai and
Lagos to stimulate regional growth.
1960s: Radical Ideas and Dependency Theory
●​ Scholars in Latin America introduced Dependency Theory, arguing
poor countries were trapped by the global system.
 ○​ Rich countries benefited by keeping poor countries
dependent on raw material exports.
○​ Solution: Poor countries needed to develop industries and
reduce reliance on richer nations.
1970s: New Approaches
●​ David Harvey’s book "Social Justice and the City" focused on
economic inequality and social justice.
●​ "Another Development":
○​ Criticized top-down models and emphasized local, rural
needs.
○​ Example: Governments often ignored rural areas, focusing
only on urban growth.
1980s: Rise of Neoliberalism
●​ Neoliberalism promote free markets, privatization, and reducing
government roles.
●​ Key leaders: Margaret Thatcher (UK) and Ronald Reagan (USA).
●​ Example: In Chile, economic reforms reduced government
involvement and opened trade.
1990s: Postmodernism and Criticism
●​ Postmodernism: Questioned Western development models,
promoting local perspectives and diverse solutions.
○​ Criticized projects like India’s Green Revolution for
increasing inequality.
●​ Development thinking became more focused on respecting local
cultures and histories.

Development Thinking Since 2000s

●​ Development now focuses on global challenges like:
1.​Climate Change: Rising sea levels and extreme weather harm
vulnerable countries.
 2.​Globalization: Creates opportunities but can exploit workers
and damage the environment.
3.​Conflicts: Wars and instability in countries like Syria affect
global peace and development.
4.​Global Health: Pandemics like COVID-19 show how
interconnected the world is.
●​ Geography’s Role:​
Geography helps study where these problems occur, who they
affect, and how they connect globally.

Scope of Development Studies

Origins of the Term "Third World":
●​ Introduced during the Cold War to describe newly independent
nations.
●​ These countries stayed neutral between the U.S. (capitalism) and
Soviet Union (communism).
Why the Term Is Outdated:
●​ After the Cold War, the term lost relevance.
●​ New terms like "Developing Countries" or "Global South" are now
used.
New Categories of Countries:
1.​Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs): Fast-growing economies
like South Korea and Brazil.
2.​Low-Income Countries (LICs): Countries with widespread poverty,
like Haiti and Afghanistan.
3.​Fragile States: Countries facing instability, like Syria.

Why DS Matters Today

 ●​ Global Problems: Development is not just for poorer nations;
challenges like inequality, health crises, and climate change affect
all countries.
●​ Blurring Lines Between Rich and Poor:
○​ Example: China is a global economic power but still has
poverty in some areas.
○​ The U.S. is wealthy but has regions with high poverty.
Criticism of Development Models:
●​ Critics argue that rich countries may impose their models on
poorer nations, ignoring local needs.

Conclusion
●​ Development Studies is about solving global issues like poverty,
inequality, and climate change.
●​ It uses ideas from many subjects to find better solutions for
everyone, in both rich and poor countries.
●​ By focusing on collaboration and local needs, DS helps us address
challenges that affect the whole world.