Errors

 Absolute Error:
EA  Exact Value  Approximate Value

 Relative Error:
Exact Value  Approximate Value EA
ER  
Exact Value Exact Value

 Percentage Error:
EP  ER 100
__________________________________________________________________

Solutions of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

 Regula Falsi Method (False-Position Method):

a f (b)  b f (a)
c
f (b)  f (a)

 Newton-Raphson Method:
f ( xi )
xi 1  xi 
f '( xi )
__________________________________________________________________

Finite Differences

 Forward Difference Operator:

f ( x)  f ( x  h)  f ( x)

 Backward Difference Operator:

f ( x)  f ( x)  f ( x  h)
  Shift Operator:
Ef ( x)  f ( x  h)
E n f ( x)  f ( x  nh)

 Average Operator:

 f ( x) 
1
2
 1 1 
 f ( x  2 h)  f ( x  2 h)  or 
2

1 12 1
E E 2 
 Central Difference Operator:
1 1 1
 E 2 E 2
 f ( x)  f ( x  h)  f ( x  h)
1
or
2 2
__________________________________________________________________

Interpolation with Equal Intervals

 Newton’s Gregory Forward Interpolation Formula:

u  u  1 2 u  u  1 u  2 3 u u  1u  2 u  3 4

f ( x)  f ( x0 )  u f ( x0 )   f ( x0 )   f ( x0 )   f ( x0 ) 
2! 3! 4!
x  x0
Where, u 
h

 Newton’s Gregory Backward Interpolation Formula:

u  u  1 2 u  u  1 u  2 3
f ( x)  f ( x0  nh)  u f ( x0  nh)   f ( x0  nh)   f ( x0 ) 
2! 3!
x  ( x0  nh)
Where, u 
h

__________________________________________________________________
 Interpolation with Unequal Intervals

 Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula:

f ( x) 
 x  x  x  x   x  x   f ( x )   x  x  x  x 
1 2 n 0 2  x  x   f (x ) 
n

 x  x  x  x   x  x 
0 1 0 2 x  x  x  x 
0 n
0
1 0 1 2 x  x 
1 n
1

 x  x  x  x   x  x   f ( x ) 
0 1 n

 x  x  x  x   x  x   f ( x )
0 1 n 1

 x  x  x  x   x  x 
2 0 2 1 2 n
2
 x  x  x  x   x  x 
n 0 n 1 n n 1
n

 Newton’s Divided Difference Interpolation Formula:

f ( x)  f ( x0 )   x  x0  f ( x0 , x1 )   x  x0   x  x1  f ( x0 , x1, x2 ) 
 x  x   x  x   x  x  f (x , x , x , x ) 
0 1 2 0 1 2 3

__________________________________________________________________

Numerical Integration

 General Quadrature Formula:

x0  nh
n2  n3 n2  2 y0  n4 2   y0
3

 f ( x) dx  n y0  y0       n n  
3

x0 2  3 2  2! 4  3!

 Trapezoidal Rule:

b
h
 f ( x) dx   y0  yn   2  y1  y2  y3   yn 
a 2

𝟏 𝒓𝒅
 Simpson’s ( ) Rule:
𝟑

b
h
 f ( x) dx  3  y
a
0  yn   4  y1  y3  y5   yn1   2  y2  y4  y6   yn2 
 𝟑 𝒕𝒉
 Simpson’s ( ) Rule:
𝟖

b
3h
 f ( x) dx   y0  yn   3 y1  y2  y4  y5   yn2   2  y3  y6  y9   yn1 
a 8 

Where, a  Lower Limit of the integration.

b  Upper Limit of the integration.
n  Number of sub  intervals
ba
h  Length of each sub  interval
n
__________________________________________________________________

Solution of First Order Ordinary Differential Equation

 Euler’s Formula:

yn 1  yn  h f  xn , yn 

 Modified Euler’s Formula:

First Calculate initial approximation using Euler’s Formula-

y1(0)  y0  h f  x0 , y0 
Use Modified Euler’s formula for better approximation:

 f  x0 , y0   f  x1 , y1( n ) 
h
y1( n 1)  y0 
2

 Runge-Kutta Method for Second Order:

1
y1  y0   k1  k2 
2
 Where, k1  h f  x0 , y0 
k2  h f  x0  h , y0  k1 

 Runge-Kutta Method for fourth Order:

1
y1  y0   k1  2 k2  2 k3  k4 
6

Where,
k1  h f  x0 , y0 

 h k 
k2  h f  x0  , y0  1 
 2 2
 h k 
k3  h f  x0  , y0  2 
 2 2
k4  h f  x0  h , y0  k3 
__________________________________________________________________