Module-V Material Science

Module-IV
Material Science
Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications Electrical Conductivity in metals Resistivity and Mobility,
Concept of Phonon, Matheissen’s rule, Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory, Assumptions of Quantum
Free Electron Theory, Fermi Energy, Density of States, Fermi Factor, Variation of Fermi Factor With
Temperature and Energy. Numerical Problems.

Superconductivity Introduction to Super Conductors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner

Effect, Critical Field, Temperature dependence of Critical field, Types of Super Conductors, BCS theory
(Qualitative), Quantum Tunneling, High Temperature superconductivity, Josephson Junctions (Qualitative),
DC and RF SQUIDs (Qualitative), Applications in Quantum Computing : Charge, Phase and Flux qubits,
Numerical Problems.

Physics Dept GMIT, DVG

Review of Classical Free Electron theory (CFT):It was first proposed by ‘Poul Drude’.Later,‘H A Lorentz’
improved this theory in certain aspects, hence, it is also known as ‘Drude-Lorentz Theory’.
According to this theory,the reason for conductivity in the conductors is due to presence of free electrons,
which are moving freely and randomly in the entire volume of the conductorjust like gas atoms in a gas container.
Based on this theory, the expression for electrical conductivity 𝝈 is obtained as,
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
𝝈= 𝒎
where,n is the number of free electrons(i.e., electron concentration), e is the charge of Poul Drude(1863-1906)
electron, 𝝉is the relaxation time of free electrons and mis the mass of electron. • German Physicist
Known for: Drude Model
(Classical free electron theory),
Failures of Classical FreeElectron theory: • Doctoral advisors:
Q: Explain the failures of classical free electron theory.(4 marks) Woldemar Voigt

Though, Drude-Lorentz theory was successful in explaining the conductivity of metals H A Lorentz (1853-1928)
but it had many failures.Among them following 2 failures may be considered. • Dutch Physicist
1. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity: Known for:Classical free
electron theory, Lorentz
We know that the conductivity of a metal is proportional to inverse of temperature, transformations, Lorentz force,
𝟏 theory of EM radiation, Lorentz
i.e., 𝝈∝𝑻 (experimentally)
matrix, Lorentz factor, etc
• Awards: Nobel Prize in
But, according to Drude-Lorentz theory, it is observed that:
Physics (1902)
𝟏
𝝈∝ (CFT) • Doctoral advisors: Pieter
√𝑻
Rijke
This is not correct.Hence, temperature dependence could not be explained using CFT.

Prepared by : Dr. GH Pujar & Rakesh V, Dept. of Physics, GMIT, DVG 1

Module-V Material Science

2. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration (n):

According to CFT, the conductivity is directly proportional to electron concentration ‘n’,
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
i.e., 𝝈= 𝒎
 𝝈∝𝒏
It indicates that the monovalent metals should have less conductivity compared to the bivalent or trivalent metals but
a complete contradiction is observed experimentally, as follows:
Copper (Monovalent) Zinc (bivalent) Aluminum (Trivalent)
Example
𝒏𝑪𝒖 < 𝒏𝒁𝒏 < 𝒏𝑨𝒍
28 −3
n 8 × 10 𝑚 13 × 1028 𝑚−3 18 × 1028 𝑚−3
According to CFT
lesser less high
𝝈𝑪𝒖 < 𝝈𝒁𝒏 < 𝝈𝑨𝒍
But, experimentally
higher high less
𝝈𝑪𝒖 > 𝝈𝒁𝒏 > 𝝈𝑨𝒍

Hence, the dependence of′𝝈′ on‘n’ cannot be explained by CFT.

Quantum Free Electron Theory (QFT):

In order to resolve the failures of CFT, Arnold Sommerfeld developed the QFT by applying energy
quantization and Pouli’s exclusion principle.

Q: Give the assumptions of quantum free electron theory.(4 marks)

Assumptions:
1. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pouli’s exclusion principle.
3. Free electrons travel in a constant potential inside
Physics the
Deptmetal but stay confined within its boundaries.
GMIT, DVG

4. The electrostatic electron-ion attractions and electron-electron repulsions are negligible.

5. The electrons are considered as wave like particles.

Density of States:
Def: “It is the number of available states per unit energy range centered at a given energy E in the valence band of a
material of unit volume”.
It is a mathematically continuous function and product g(E)∙dE gives the
number of states in the energy interval dE,where g(E) is density of states function.
Consider a material of unit volume. Let energy band be spread in the energy
interval between E1 and E2, and dE be the infinitesimally small interval in E,then the
number of energy states in the range E and (E+dE) is obtained by evaluating the
g(E)dE.
By Quantum mechanical calculation, it can be shown that,
𝟑⁄
𝟖√𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝟐 𝟏⁄
𝒈(𝑬)𝒅𝑬 = ( )𝑬 𝟐 𝒅𝑬
𝒉𝟑

 Density of states is proportional to square root of energy value, i.e., 𝒈(𝑬)𝒅𝑬 ∝ √𝐸

Q: Give a brief account for Fermi-Dirac distribution theory.(4 marks)

Fermi-Dirac statistics:
“Fermi –Dirac statistics is the statistical rule applied to the distribution ofidentical, indistinguishable particles
of spin 1/2 called fermions like electrons,which obey Pauli’s exclusion principle”.

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Module-V Material Science
Thus, F-D statistics explains about how electrons orderly distributed in various energy states under thermal
equilibrium.
Fermi energy (EF) and Fermi level:
We know that as per Pauli’s exclusion principle, each energy level can
accommodate a maximum of two electrons- one with spin up and other one
with spin down. The filling up of these electrons in various energy levels is
undertaken from lowest level to higher levels as shown in Fig.
Now we define Fermi energy and level as follows.
“The highest energy occupied by an electron at zero degree Kelvin is called
Fermi energy (EF)and the corresponding energy level is referred as Fermi
level”.
F-D statistics permits the evaluation of probability of finding electronsoccupying energy levels through a
function called Fermi Factor [f(E)].

Fermi Factor [f(E)]: Enrico Fermi(1901-1954)

• Italian Physicist, later
Q: Define Fermi factor. Explain the variation of Fermi factor with temperature.(6 M) American Physicist
marks) Known for: F-D statistics,
Fermi factor evaluates probability of finding electrons under thermal excitations. Fermi Golden Rule, Nuclear
chain reaction, -decay, etc.
Though, thermal excitationsare random, but the resulting distribution of electrons in
• Awards: Nobel prize in 1938
various energy levels after excitation is not random but a systematic one. Fermi factor is
• Doctoral advisors: Max
defined as, Born, Paul Ehrenfest,

“Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of given energy state by an Paul Dirac (1902-1984)
electron in the material at the thermal equilibrium”. • British theoretical Physicist
Known for:F-D statistics, Dirac
Physics Dept GMIT, DVG
The probability (f(E)) of finding electron occupying an energy level E at a temperature algebra, delta function etc
T, is given by, • Awards: Nobel Prize in
Physics (1933)
𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = • Doctoral Students: Homi J.
𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 +𝟏 Bhabha, etc.

Dependence of Fermi Factor on Temperature and effect on occupancy of Energy Levels:

Case (i): Probability of occupation at T=0 K for E<EF

Under this case, we have for the probability,

1 𝟏 𝟏
𝑓(𝐸) =  𝒇(𝑬) = 𝒆−∞+𝟏 = 𝟎+𝟏 ⸪ (E-EF) →-
𝑒 (𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 +1
ve& T = 0 K

⸫ 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟏

Here, 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟏 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF applies
to all the energy levels below EF (see Fig).
∴ At T=0 K, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.

Case (ii): Probability of occupation at T=0 Kfor E>EF

Here, we have for the probability,

1 𝟏 𝟏
𝑓(𝐸) =  𝒇(𝑬) = 𝒆∞+𝟏 = ∞+𝟏 ⸪ (E-EF) →+ve& T = 0 K
𝑒 (𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 +1

⸫ 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎

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Module-V Material Science
Here, 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎 means the energy level is unoccupied and E> EF applies to all the energy levels aboveEF
∴ At T= 0 K, all the energy levels above the Fermi level are unoccupied.
Hence, at T=0 K the variation of f(E) for different energy values becomes a step function as shown in Fig.

Case (iii): Probability of occupation atT >0 K(i.e.,at ordinary temperatures)

At ordinary temperatures, though the value of 𝒇(𝑬) remains 1 for E<<EF,it starts decreasing from 1 as the
value of E becomes closer to EF(see the curve for T > 0 K in Fig).
The values of 𝒇(𝑬)becomes ½ at E= EF. This is because,
1 𝟏 𝟏
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹  𝒇(𝑬) = 𝒆𝟎+𝟏 = 𝟏+𝟏 ⸪ (E-EF) →0 & T  0 K
( )
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +1

𝟏
⸫ 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟐 or 𝟎. 𝟓

Further, for E>EF, the probability 𝒇(𝑬)value falls off to zero rapidly.

Fermi Temperature (TF):“It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electrons in
metal becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0 K”.
𝑬𝑭
i.e., 𝒌𝑻𝑭 = 𝑬𝑭 𝑻𝑭 = 𝒌
where, k is Boltzmann’s constant, 𝑬𝑭 isFermi energy.

Note:Fermi Temperature is only a theoretical concept, since at ordinary temperature, it is not possible for the
electrons to receive the thermal energy in a magnitude of E F.
𝑬𝑭 𝟑×𝟏.𝟔𝟎𝟐×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
For Eg: Letusconsider the case in which, 𝑬𝑭 = Physics
𝟑 𝒆𝑽,Dept GMIT, DVG
then 𝑻𝑭 = 𝒌
= 𝟏.𝟑𝟖𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑
𝑻𝑭 = 𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝑲
This is quite exaggerated temperature to be realized in practice.

Fermi Velocity (𝑽𝑭 ): “The velocity with which electrons occupy the Fermi level is called Fermi velocity”.

𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝑭 𝑽𝑭 = √
𝟏 𝟐𝑬𝑭
i.e.,
𝒎

Expression for Electrical Conductivity (𝝈) based on Quantum Free Electron theory (no derivation):
Sommerfeld arrived at an expression for electrical conductivity of metals based on QFT, as:

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝀
𝝈= ( )
𝒎∗ 𝑽𝑭
where,m* is the effective mass of the electron, 𝝀is mean free path of electrons, 𝑽𝑭 is Fermi velocity, n is concentration
of electrons.
Effective mass (𝒎∗ ): When a metal is subjected to the influence of an electric field then the mass possessed by the electron
which moves under the combined influence of applied electric field and that of a periodic potential due to lattice ions is called
effective mass.It is different from its true mass.

Success of Quantum Free Electron Theory:

Q: Discuss two successes of quantum free electron theory.(04 marks)
QFT has been successful in explaining the following facts:
1. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
According to quantum free electron theory, we know that, 𝜎= ( ) 𝝈 ∝ 𝝀 (1)
𝑚 ∗ 𝑉𝐹

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Module-V Material Science
As per QFT, the temperature dependence of 𝝈will come from the nature of dependence of 𝝀on T. Due to T, lattice
ions vibrate in all the directions equally, creating a circular cross-section of area 𝝅𝒓𝟐 (r; amplitude of vibration). 𝝀 and
𝟏 𝟏
this area related as, 𝝀 ∝ 𝝅𝒓𝟐 . But, 𝑟 2 ∝ 𝑇𝝀 ∝ 𝑻 (2)
Comparing eqn (1) and (2), we have
𝟏
𝝈∝
𝑻
This is in good agreement with experimental results.

2. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
According to QFT, we know that, 𝜎= ( )
𝑚 ∗ 𝑉𝐹
𝝀
From this equation it is clear that the value of𝝈 depends not only on n but also on ratio (𝑽 ) and 𝒎∗ .
𝑭
If we compare the cases of copper (monovalent) and aluminum (trivalent):-Though, the value of n for Al is
𝝀
2.13 times greater than that of Cu,but the value of (𝑽 ) for Cu is about 3.73 times higher than that of Al. Hence
𝑭
conductivity of Cu exceeds that of Al( i.e., 𝝈𝑪𝒖 > 𝝈𝑨𝒍).
Also value of m* for Al is 1.08 times that of Cu.Because of inverse dependence of 𝝈 on m*, 𝝈 of Cu becomes
higher than the 𝝈of Al ( i.e., 𝝈𝑪𝒖 > 𝝈𝑨𝒍 ).

Concept of phonon:

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All the metals have crystalline structure. Hence atoms or ions are situated at particular
position of crystal lattice. Because of thermal energy these ions are vibrating in all directions from their mean position.
These vibrations of ions in lattice are quantised. The quantised lattice vibrations are called phonons. These are the
particle like entities which carries the unit energy of elastic field in a particular mode. The energy of the phonon is
given by hʋ. The free electrons collide with ion core at lattice point. The collision results in a change in the direction
of velocity of the electrons. In absence of electric field, the velocities of electrons are in random directions due to
which there is no net transfer of charge. According to Drude –Lorentz theory all metals contain free electrons move
through the positive ionic core of the metals. The metal is then pictured to be held together by electrostatic forces of
attraction between the positively charged ions and negatively charged electron gas. Mutual repulsion between negative
electrons is ignored in this theory.

Matthiessen’s rule:

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Module-V Material Science

The resistivity of metal is due to scattering of conduction electrons by lattice

vibrations. Hence electrons move under the action of electric field. The amplitude of lattice vibration is proportional
to temperature. If the temperature of the material increases, amplitude of lattice vibration also increases, then more
electrons are scattered which leads to increase in the resistivity of the material.
The resistivity ρ of a metal containing small amount of impurities may be written as:
ρ = ρ0+ ρ(T) (1)
Where ρ0 is a constant which increases with increasing impurity content and ρ (T) is the temperature –dependent part
of the resistivity.
Equation (1) is known as the Matthiessen’s rule
In a conductor, the resistivity decreases with temperature and reaches minimum value
at T=0. This non-zero resistivity is due to presence of impurities in the metal and it is called residual resistivity ρ0.

Physics Dept GMIT, DVG

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Superconductivity is a phenomenon observed in some metals. There is

disappearance of electrical resistivity at temperature approaching 0K. The phenomenon of superconductivity was
discovered by Kamerlingh Onne. He was studying properties of Hg at very low temperature, he found that resistivity
of Hg suddenly dropped to 0 at 4.2K. That is Hg converted into superconducting material at 4.2K. At very low
temperature, a normal conductor has some resistivity but a superconductor resistivity suddenly drops to zero. Some
good electrical conductors like copper and gold are not good superconductors. On other hand materials like Zinc and
lead are not good electrical conductors, but they are good superconductors. The superconducting materials show their
superconducting behavior below certain temperature known as critical temperature Tc. They can carry very high
currents without loss of energy and their conductivity is infinite. The ability to achieve very high currents in
electromagnet makes it possible to produce very high magnetic field. When temperature of superconducting material
is increased material transform into normal conductor above critical temperature Tc

Definition of superconductivity and Critical Temperature:

The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drops to zero below a
threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and the threshold temperature is called critical
temperature.

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity of Superconductor :

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Module-V Material Science

The dependence of resistivity ρ of a superconductor on temperature is shown

in Fig. resistivity in the non-superconducting state (normal metal) decreases with decrease in temperature as in the case
of a normal metal up to a particular temperature Tc. At Tc ρ abruptly drops to zero. Tc is called the critical temperature
and signifies the transition from normal state to the superconducting state of the material under study. The critical
temperature is different for different superconductors. For ex. Mercury loses its resistance completely and turns into
a superconductor at 4.2K.

BCS (Barden Cooper and Schrieffer’s Theory) Theory

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➢ The indirect interaction proceeds when one electron interacts with lattice and deforms it and second electron
reaches deformed lattice adjust itself to take advantage of deformation to lower its energy. Thus the second
electron interacts with first electron via lattice deformation forms cooper pair. The cooper pair is a bound pair
of electrons formed by interaction between electrons with opposite spin and momenta in phonon field.
➢ An attractive interaction between electrons leads to separation of ground state from excited state by an energy
gap. The critical field, thermal properties and most of the electromagnetic properties are consequences of
energy gap.
➢ The penetration depth and coherence length emerge as a natural consequence of B.C.S Theory. The Landon
equation is obtained for magnetic field that vary slowly in space. Thus meissner effect can be obtained in
natural way.
➢ The criterion for critical temperature in element involves electron density at Fermi level and electron lattice
interaction which can be estimated from electrical resistivity measurement. Because resistivity at room
temperature is a measure of electron-phonon interaction.
➢ The magnetic flux through a superconducting ring is quantized and the effective unit of charge is 2e rather than
e. the BCS ground state involves pairs of electrons thus flux quantization in terms of pair charge 2e is a
consequence of theory

Meissner Effect (Effect of Magnetic Field):

A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its body
when it is cooled below the critical temperature Tc and thus it becomes a perfect diamagnet. This phenomenon is
called ‘Meissner effect’.

Demonstration of Meissner Effect:

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Module-V Material Science

Meissner Effect is the expulsion of the magnetic field, which converts a material
from a normal state to a superconducting state when cooled down below the critical temperature.
Meissner Effect is the effect that converts a material from a normal state to a superconducting state. When a material
is called below critical temperature at which the magnetic field from the interior of the material is exploded, then this
material is transformed into the superconductor.

The temperature required to convert the material into the superconductor is

called the critical temperature. This transition temperature is near absolute temperature (0K), This superconductor
material has zero electric resistance. When a magnetic field is applied at the higher value of temperature T>Tc, the
superconductor has a minor effect. These magnetic fields passed through the superconductor quickly. But when T<Tc
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, the magnetic field is thrown out from inside the superconductor and bends on all sides of it when the magnetic field
is applied.
This expulsion of the magnetic field is the generation of magnetisation inside the
superconductor due to no resistance flow of surface currents. This generated diamagnetic magnetization is inverse and
opposite to the applied magnetic field, which neutralises the magnetic field around the superconductor.
The Meissner Effect suggests that the value of the magnetic field inside a superconductor is zero.
B=0
The magnetic induction inside the specimen for the normal conditions is given by the following equation.
B=μ0(H+I)
Here, I is the magnetization which is generated inside the specimen and H is the magnetic field applied externally.
By both equations, we have,
μ0 (H+I) =0
(H+I) = 0
H=-I
I
= =-1
H
The diamagnetic material susceptibility is equal to -1, so the material is ideally diamagnetic.
Types of super conductors:

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Module-V Material Science
Type I Superconductors: These superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. In the presence of
an external magnetic field H<Hc, the material in superconducting state is a perfect diamagnet. Since it is a diamagnet
it possess negative magnetic moment(-M).

The dependence of magnetic moment on H for Type I superconductors is shown in Fig. As soon as the applied
field H exceeds Hc, the entire material becomes normal by loosing its diamagnetic property completely, and the
magnetic flux penetrates throughout the body. The resistance changes from zero to a value as applicable to a normal
conductor. The critical field value for Type I superconductors are found to be very low. The low H c value excludes
them from being used for construction of superconducting magnets wherein they are exposed to extremely high
magnetic fields.

1. Type II Superconductors

A Type II superconductor is characterized by two critical magnetic fields H c1 , and

Hc2. For any applied field strength less than the critical value Hc1, it expels the magnetic field from its body completely,
and behaves as a perfect diamagnet from end to end. When H exceeds H c1, the flux penetrates the body and fills in
partially. With further increase in H, the flux filling also increases and covers the entire body when H becomes equal
to or greater than a second critical value Hc2. The material then turns into a normal conductor. Hc1 andHc2 are called
the lower critical field and the upper critical field respectively.

The dependence of magnetic moment on the external magnetic field is shown in Fig.. When the applied field
strength is between Hc1 and Hc2, the material is in a mixed state. This state is called Vortex (mixed) state. The material
doesn’t show complete meissner effect. The flux penetration occurs through small channelized parts of the body called
filaments. They are the bits of material which had turned to normal state from the superconducting state when H>Hc1.
These filaments increase in number with increase in H till H=Hc2 when they spread into the entire body, and the material
as a whole returns to its normal conducting state.
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Temperature dependence of critical field:

The minimum strength of applied magnetic field required to change the superconducting
state to normal state below critical temperature is called Critical field (Hc).
For a superconducting material, the critical field will be higher when temperature is lower. If T is temperature
of superconducting material (T<Tc), Hc the critical field and H0 the field required to turn the superconductor to normal
conductor at 00K. Then the relation for critical field is given by
 T2
H c = H 0 1 − 2  The dependence of Hc on T is given in the fig.
 Tc 
Under the influence of magnetic field whose strength is greater than Hc the material can never become superconducting
however low the temperature may be.
High-temperature superconductors:
All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper and exhibits particular type of
crystal structure called perovskite crystal structure. It is interesting to note that critical temperature is higher for which
have more number copper oxygen layers in structural units.

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Module-V Material Science
The formation of super currents in high temperature superconductors is direction dependent super-currents are
strong in the copper-oxygen planes and they are weak in the direction perpendicular to planes.
High temperature superconductors are defined as materials that behave as superconductors at temperatures above
77 K. . In absolute terms, these "high temperatures" are still far below ambient, and therefore require cooling. The first
high-temperature superconductor was discovered in 1986, by IBM researchers Bednorz and Müller. Most of the high-
temperature superconductors are type-II superconductors.
The major advantage of high-temperature superconductors is that they can be cooled by using liquid
nitrogen, as opposed to the previously known superconductors which require expensive and hard-to-handle coolants.
A second advantage of high-Tc materials is they retain their superconductivity in higher magnetic field, This is
important when constructing superconducting magnets, a primary application of high-Tc materials.
The majority of high-temperature superconductors are ceramic materials. Ceramic superconductors are suitable for
some practical uses but they still have many manufacturing issues. For example, most ceramics are brittle which makes
the fabrication of wires from them very problematic.
Josephson Effect:

The current flows across the two superconductors separated

Physics byDVG
Dept GMIT, an insulating layer in the absence of electric and
magnetic field is called Josephson effect. . It is an example of a macroscopic quantum phenomenon, The Josephson
effect has many practical applications because it exhibits a precise relationship between different physics quantities,
such as voltage and frequency, facilitating highly accurate measurements.

The Josephson effect produces a current, known as a super-current, that flows continuously without any voltage
applied, across a device known as a Josephson junction (JJ). These consist of two or more superconductors coupled by
a weak link.

Josephson junction:

A Josephson junction is a quantum mechanical device which is made of two superconducting electrodes separated by
a barrier (thin insulating tunnel barrier, normal metal, semiconductor, etc.). A π Josephson junction is a Josephson
junction in which the Josephson phase φ equals π in the ground state, i.e. when no external current or magnetic field is
applied. The super-current Is through a Josephson junction (JJ) is generally given by Is = Ic sin(φ), where φ is the phase
difference of the superconducting wave functions of the two electrodes and Ic is the critical current i.e maximum
super-current that can exist through the Josephson junction.

Quantum Tunnelling:

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Module-V Material Science
A quantum tunnelling or barrier penetration, or simply tunnelling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which an
object such as an electron or atom passes through a potential energy barrier that, according to classical mechanics, the
object does not have sufficient energy to enter.
Tunneling is a consequence of the wave nature of matter, where the quantum wave function describes the state of a
particle or other physical system, and wave equations such as the Schrödinger equation describe their behaviour. The
probability of transmission of a wave packet through a barrier decreases exponentially with the barrier height, the
barrier width, and the tunneling particle's mass. So tunneling is seen most prominently in low-mass particles such
as electrons or protons. Tunneling is readily detectable with barriers of thickness about 1–3 nm or smaller for
electrons, and about 0.1 nm or smaller for heavier particles such as protons or hydrogen atoms. Some sources describe
the mere penetration of a wave function into the barrier, without transmission on the other side, as a tunneling effect.

SQUID:

A SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device) is basically a sensitive

magnetometer. The heart of squid is a superconducting ring which contains one or more Josephson junction. It is used
to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields, based on superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions.
SQUIDs are sensitive enough to measure fields as low as 5×10-14 T with a few days of averaged
measurements. Their noise levels are very low
There are two main types of SQUIDs: a direct current (DC) SQUID and radio
frequency (RF) SQUID. RF SQUIDs can work with only one Josephson junction (superconducting tunnel junction),
which might make them cheaper to produce, but are less sensitive.
Physics Dept GMIT, DVG

DC SQUID:

When the Josephson junctions are sandwiched between two insulating layers in the form
of ring, it forms DC squid. The DC SQUID has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconducting loop. It is
based on the DC Josephson effect. In the absence of any external magnetic field, the input current splits into the two
branches each with currents Ia and Ib equally hence it gives the phase difference zero. . If a small external magnetic
field is applied to the superconducting loop, phases of currents changes, then wavefunctions at the junction interfere.
then a screening current, Is begins to circulate the loop that generates the magnetic field cancelling the applied external
flux, and creates an additional Josephson phase which is proportional to this external magnetic flux. The induced
current is in the same direction as I in one of the branches of the superconducting loop, and is opposite to I in the other
I I
branch; the total current becomes + I s in one branch and − I s i in the other. As soon as the current in either
2 2
branch exceeds the critical current Ic of the Josephson junction, a voltage appears across the junction. Since the current-
voltage characteristic is hysteretic, a resistance R is connected to remove hysteresis.

RF SQUID:

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Module-V Material Science

The RF SQUID is composed of one Josephson junction and RF coil. RF coil

is used to readout changes due to change in flux. It is based on the AC Josephson effect and uses only one Josephson
junction. Suppose one junction superconducting loop is put in an external flux, in one junction superconducting loop
is coupled to a circuit driven by rf current source.
The tuned circuit is driven by constant rf oscillator which is weakly coupled to the loop. Measuring the change in input
coil current is done by counting number of periods the coil produces in the detected rf output. Because the detected rf
output is periodic function. It is less sensitive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to manufacture in
smaller quantities. The RF SQUID is inductively coupled to a resonant tank circuit. Depending on the external
magnetic field, as the SQUID operates in the resistive mode, the effective inductance of the tank circuit changes, thus
changing the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. These frequency measurements can be easily taken, and thus the
losses which appear as the voltage across the load resistor in the circuit are a periodic function of the applied magnetic
flux with a period of ɸ0.

Applications of Superconductivity in Quantum Computing:

Charge Qubit:
Physics Dept GMIT, DVG
In quantum computing, a charge qubit (also known as Cooper-pair box) is a qubit whose
basis states are charge states (i.e. states which represent the presence or absence of excess Cooper pairs in the
island). In superconducting quantum computing, a charge qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled by
a Josephson junction to a superconducting reservoir. The state of the qubit is determined by the number of Cooper
pairs which have tunneled across the junction. In contrast with the charge state of an atomic or molecular ion, the
charge states of such an "island" involve a macroscopic number of conduction electrons of the island. The quantum
superposition of charge states can be achieved by tuning the gate voltage U that controls the chemical potential of the
island. The charge qubit is typically read-out by electrostatically coupling the island to an extremely
sensitive electrometer such as the radio-frequency single-electron transistor.
Phase Qubit:
In superconducting quantum computing, the phase qubit is a superconducting device based on
the superconductor–insulator–superconductor (SIS) Josephson junction, designed to operate as a quantum bit, or
qubit.
The phase qubit is closely related, yet distinct from, the flux qubit and the charge qubit, which are also quantum bits
implemented by superconducting devices. The major distinction among the three is the ratio of Josephson
energy vs charging energy (the necessary energy for one Cooper pair to charge the total capacitance in the circuit):

• For phase qubit, this ratio is on the order of 106, which allows for macroscopic bias current through the junction;
• For flux qubit it's on the order of 10, which allows for mesoscopic supercurrents
• For charge qubit it's less than 1, and therefore only a few Cooper pairs can tunnel through and charge the Cooper-
pair box.

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Module-V Material Science

Flux Qubit:
In superconducting quantum computing, flux qubits (also known as persistent current
qubits) are micrometer sized loops of superconducting metal that is interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions.
These devices function as quantum bits. During fabrication, the Josephson junction parameters are engineered so that
a persistent current will flow continuously when an external magnetic flux is applied. Only an integer number of flux
quanta are allowed to penetrate the superconducting ring, resulting in clockwise or counter-clockwise supercurrents in
the loop to compensate a non-integer external flux bias. When the applied flux through the loop area is close to a half
integer number of flux quanta, the two lowest energy eigenstates of the loop will be a quantum superposition of the
clockwise and counter-clockwise currents. The two lowest energy eigenstates differ only by the relative quantum phase
between the composing current-direction states.

Solved Examples (Conductors)

Physics Dept GMIT, DVG
Example 1.

Example 3.

Example 2.

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Module-IV Quantum Mechanics&Lasers

Example 5.

Physics Dept GMIT, DVG

Example 4.

Example 6.

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Module-IV Quantum Mechanics&Lasers

Example 7.
Example 3. A superconducting material has a critical temperature of 3.7 K in
zero magnetic field and a critical field of 0.02 T at 0 K. Find the critical field at
3 K.

Example 4. The critical field for lead is 1.2 × 105 A/m at 8 K and 2.4 × 105 A/m
at 0 K. Find the critical temperature of the material.

Physics Dept GMIT, DVG

Example 5. The critical field for niobium is 1 × 105 amp/m at 8 K and 2 × 105
amp/m at absolute zero. Find the transition temperature of the element.

Example6.The critical fields for lead are 1.2 × 105 A/m & 3.6 × 105 A/m at 12 K
& 10 K, respectively. Find its critical temperature & critical field at 0K & 3.2 K.

On dividing Eqn. (1) by (2),

Put in Eqn. (1),

Now for T=3.2K,

Prepared by : Dr. GH Pujar & Nagalakshmi N, Dept. of Physics, GMIT, DVG 15

Module-IV Quantum Mechanics&Lasers

Physics Dept GMIT, DVG

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