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BITC 411: MOBILE APPLICATION

PROGRAMMING

LECTURE NOTES.

CHAPTER ONE

INFORMATION TRANSMISSION.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

ThischapterprovidesanintroductiontoComputernetworksand
covers fundamental topics like data, information to the definition
of communication and computer networks.
The main objective of data communication and networking is to
enable seamless exchange of data between any two points in
the world.
Thisexchangeofdatatakesplaceoveracomputernetwork.

1.1 DATA&INFORMATION
Datarefers to the raw facts that are collected whileinformation
referstoprocesseddatathatenablesustotakedecisions.
Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains dataof
all students, when you find the marks you have scored you
have the information that lets you know whether you have
passed or failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a
form thatis agreedand accepted uponbyis creators andusers.

1.2 DATACOMMUNICATION
Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or
information
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In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two
devices over a transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is madeup
of hardware and software. The hardware part involves the
sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices
through which the data passes. The software part involves
certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how itis
to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
Thefollowingsectionsdescribesthefundamental characteristics
that are important for the effective working of data
communicationprocess andisfollowedbythe components that
make up a data communications system.

1.2.1 CharacteristicsofData Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends

upon the following four fundamental characteristics:
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1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correctdestination

and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data
accurately, without introducing any errors. The data may get
corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a
timely manner without any delay; such a data delivery is called
real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter
may affect the timeliness of data being transmitted.

1.2.2 Components ofData Communication

ADataCommunicationsystemhasfivecomponentsasshown in
the diagram below:

Fig.Components ofaDataCommunication System

1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender
tothe receiver.

2. Sender
Thesenderisanydevicethatiscapableofsendingthedata (message).

3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the
data (message).

4. TransmissionMedium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
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5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and
receiver to communicate data.
A protocol is asetof rules that governs data communication.
A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without
which the communicating entities are like two persons trying
to talk to each other in a different language without know the
other language.

1.3 DATAREPRESENTATION

Dataiscollectionofrawfactswhichisprocessedtodeduce information.

There may be different forms in which data may be represented.

Someoftheformsofdatausedincommunicationsareasfollows:

1. Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well
as upper case.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode

2. Numbers
Numbersincludecombinationofdigitsfrom0to9.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
―Animageisworthathousandwords‖isa veryfamoussaying.
Incomputersimagesaredigitallystored.
A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple
terms, a picture or image is a matrix of pixel elements.
The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon
the type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would
require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel.
The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also
called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the valueof
each pixel.
Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each
pixel can be represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an image
madeupof10x10pixelelementswouldrequireonly100bitsin
memory tobe stored.
On the other hand an image that includes gray may require
2bitstorepresenteverypixel value(00-black,01 –darkgray,10
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– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would

now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.

Commonly used Image formats :jpg, png, bmp, etc

4. Audio
Datacanalsobeintheformofsoundwhichcanberecorded and
broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a
source of data or information.
Audio data is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video
Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

1.4 DATAFLOW

wo devices communicate with each other by sending and

receiving data. The data can flow between the two devices in the
following ways.
1. Simplex
2. HalfDuplex
3. FullDuplex

1.4.1 Simplex

Figure:Simplexmodeofcommunication

InSimplex,communicationisunidirectional
Onlyoneofthedevicessendsthedataandtheotherone only
receives the data.
Example:intheabovediagram:acpusenddatawhilea monitor
only receives data.

1.4.2 HalfDuplex
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Figure:Half DuplexMode ofCommunication

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive

but not at the same time.
Whenonedeviceissendingothercanonlyreceiveandvice- versa (as
shown in figure above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.

1.4.3 FullDuplex

Figure:FullDuplexModeofCommunication

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive

at the same time.
Example: mobile phones

1.5 COMPUTERNETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Definition:
A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes.
A node can be any device capable of transmitting or
receiving data.
The communicating nodes have to be connected by
communication links.

A Compute network should ensure

reliabilityofthedatacommunicationprocess,shouldc
securityof thedata
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performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller

delay times

1.5.1 CategoriesofNetwork
Networksarecategorizedonthebasisoftheirsize.The three
basic categories of computer networks are:

A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few

kilometers of area. It may be privately owned and could be
a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building
oraLANcouldbeanetworkconsistingof the computersin a
entire building.

B. Wide AreaNetwork(WAN) ismadeof allthenetworksina

(geographically)largearea.Thenetworkintheentirestate of
Maharashtra could be a WAN

C. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)is of size betweenLAN

&WAN. It is larger than LAN but smaller thanWAN. It may
comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai.

1.6 PROTOCOL

A Protocol is one of the components of a data

communications system. Without protocol communication
cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data
and expect the receiving device to receive and further
interpret it correctly.

When the sender sends a message it may consist of text,

number, images, etc. which are converted into bits and
grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain
additional information called control information is alsoadded
to help the receiver interpret the data.

For successful communication to occur, the sender and

receiver must agree upon certain rules called protocol.

A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data

communications.

A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be

communicated and when it is to be communicated.

1.6.1 ElementsofaProtocol
Therearethreekeyelementsof aprotocol:
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A. Syntax
Itmeansthestructureorformatofthedata.
Itisthearrangementofdatainaparticularorder.

B. Semantics
Ittellsthemeaningofeachsectionofbitsandindicates the
interpretation of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken basedon
the interpretation.

C. Timing
It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to
receive the data
It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sentto
the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

1.7 STANDARDSINNETWORKING

Standards are necessary in networking to ensure

interconnectivity and interoperability between various
networking hardware and software components.

Without standards we would have proprietary products

creating isolated islands of users which cannot interconnect.

1.7.1 ConceptofStandard
Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and
vendors to ensure national and internationalinterconnectivity.

Data communications standards are classified into two

categories:

1. DefactoStandard
o These are the standards that have been traditionally
used and mean by fact or by convention
o These standards are not approved by any organized
body but are adopted by widespread use.

2. Dejurestandard
o Itmeansbylawor byregulation.
o Thesestandardsarelegislatedandapprovedby an
body that is officially recognized.

1.7.2 StandardOrganizationsinfieldof Networking

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CHAPTER TWO

DATA SIGNAL

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Computer networks are designed to transfer data from one

point to another. During transit data is in the form
ofelectromagnetic signals. Hence it is important to study data and
signals before we move to further concepts in data communication.

2.1 DATA&SIGNALS

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to

electromagnetic signals.

2.1.1. Datacanbe AnalogorDigital.

1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex.

sounds made by a human voice
2. Digitaldatareferstoinformationthathasdiscretestates.
Digital data take on discrete values.
3. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the
form of Os and 1s

2.1.2. Signalscanbeoftwotypes:
1. AnalogSignal:Theyhaveinfinitevaluesinarange.
2. Digital Signal: They have limited number of defined
values

Figure:a. AnalogSignal b.DigitalSignal*

2.1.3. eriodic& NonPeriodicSignal
Signalswhich repeat itselfafterafixedtimeperiod arecalled Periodic Signals.
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Signalswhichdonotrepeatitselfafterafixedtimeperiod are called
Non-Periodic Signals.
Indatacommunications,wecommonlyuseperiodic analog
signals and non-periodic digital signals.

2.2 ANALOGSIGNAL
An analogsignal has infinitelymanylevels of intensityovera
period of time.
As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through
and includes an infinite number of values along its path as it
can be seen in the figure below.
A simple analog signal is a sine wave that cannot be further
decomposed into simpler signals.

Fig.Sinewave

A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:

1. PeakAmplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase

2.3.1 CharacteristicsofanAnalogSignal

2.3.1.1 PeakAmplitude
Theamplitudeofasignalistheabsolutevalueofits intensity at
time t
Thepeakamplitudeofasignalistheabsolutevalueof the
highest intensity.
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Theamplitudeofasignalisproportionaltotheenergy carried
by the signal

Fig.Amplitudeofasinewave

2.3.1.2. Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the
wave in one second.
Period refers to the time taken by the wave to complete one
second.

Fig: Frequency& Periodofasinewave

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2.3.1.3. Phase
Phasedescribesthepositionofthewaveformwithrespecttotime
(specificallyrelative to time O).

Fig: Phaseofasinewave*

Phaseindicatestheforwardorbackwardshiftofthe waveform
from the axis
Itismeasuredindegreesorradian
Thefigureaboveshowsthesinewaves withsameamplitude and
frequency but different phases

2.3.2 Relation between Frequency & Period

Frequency&Periodareinverseofeachother.
Itisindicatedbythefollowingformula:
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Example1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz. Its period(T) is given

by
T=1/F=1/100=0.01sec

Example2.Awavecompletesitsonecyclein0.25seconds. Its
frequency is given by
F=1 /T=1/0.25= 4Hz

2.3.3 Wavelength
Thewavelengthofasignalreferstotherelationshipbetween
frequency (or period) and propagation speed of the wave
through a medium.
Thewavelengthisthedistanceasignaltravelsinone period.
It is given by
Wavelength=PropagationSpeedXPeriod
OR
Wavelength=PropagationSpeedX1
Frequency
It is represented bythe symbol : λ (pronounced as lamda)
It is measured in micrometers
Itvariesfromonemediumto another.

2.3.4. Time Domain and Frequency domain representation of

signals

A sine wave can be represented either in the time domain or

frequency domain.
The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude
with respect to time. It indicates time and amplitude relation
of a signal.
The frequency-domain plot shows signal frequency and
peak amplitude.
The figure below show time and frequency domain plots of
three sine waves.
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Fig:Timedomainandfrequencydomainplotsofthreesine
waves*

Acompletesinewaveinthetimedomaincanberepresented by
one single spike in the frequency domain
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Fig:AdigitalsignalwithTwolevels.„1‟representedbya
positivevoltageand„0‟representedbyanegativevoltage
A Signal can have more than two levels

11 10 01 00 00 01 10 10
LEVEL
4
LEVEL
3
LEVEL
2
LEVEL
1

Fig:Adigitalsignalwith fourlevels
Ingeneral,ifasignalhasLlevelsthen,eachlevelneed Log 2L bits
Example:ConsideradigitalSignalwithfourlevels,howmany bits
are required per level?
Answer:Numberofbitsperlevel=Log2L
=Log24
=2
Hence,2bitsarerequiredperlevelforasignalwithfour levels.
2.4.1 BITLENGTHorBitInterval(Tb)
Itisthetimerequiredtosendonebit. It is
measured in seconds.
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2.4.2 BIT RATE

Itisthenumberofbitstransmittedinonesecond. It is
expressed as bits per second (bps).
Relationbetweenbitrateandbitintervalcanbeasfollows Bit
rate=1 / Bit interval

2.4.3 Baud Rate

It is the rate of Signal Speed, i.e the rate at which the signal
changes.
Adigital signal withtwolevels ‗0‘ &‗1‘ willhavethesame baud
rate and bit rate & bit rate.
Thediagrambelowshowsthreesignalofperiod(T)1 second
a) Signal with a bit rate of 8 bits/ sec and baud rate of 8
baud/sec
b) Signalwithabitrate of16 bits/ secand baudrate of8
baud/sec
c) Signalwithabitrate of16 bits/ secand baudrate of4
baud/sec

Fig:Threesignalswithdifferentbitratesandbaud rates
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2.3 TYPESOFCHANNELS:
Each composite signal has a lowest possible(minimum)
frequency and a highest possible (maximum) frequency.

Fromthepointofview oftransmission, there are twotypes of

channels:

2.5.1 LowpassChannel
Thischannelhasthelowestfrequencyas‗0‘andhighest frequency
as some non-zero frequency ‗f1‘.
This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.

2.5.2 Bandpasschannel
This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero
frequency ‗f1‘ and highest frequency as some non-zero
frequency ‗f2‘.
This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.

Fig:LowpassChannel&BandpassChannel

2.4 TransmissionofDigitalsignal
Digitalsignalcanbetransmittedinthefollowingtwo ways:

2.6.1 BasebandTransmission
The signal is transmitted withoutmaking anychangeto it
(ie. Without modulation)
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In baseband transmission, the bandwidth of the signal to

be transmitted has to be less than the bandwidth of the
channel.

Ex. Consider a Baseband channel with lower frequency

0Hz andhigherfrequency100Hz,henceitsbandwidthis
100(Bandwidthiscalculatedbygettingthedifference
between the highest and lowest frequency).

We can easily transmit a signal with frequency below

100Hz, such a channel whose bandwidth is more than
the bandwidth of the signal is called Wideband channel

Logically a signal with frequency say 120Hz will be

blocked resulting in loss of information, such a channel
whosebandwidthislessthanthebandwidthof thesignal is
called Narrowband channel

2.6.2 Broad band Transmission

Given a bandpass channel, a digital signal cannot be
transmitted directly through it

In broadband transmission we use modulation, i.e we

change the signal to analog signal before transmitting it.

The digital signal is first converted to an analog signal,

since we have a bandpass channel we cannot directly
send this signal through the available channel. Ex.
Considerthebandpasschannelwithlowerfrequency 50Hz
and higher frequency 80Hz, and the signal to be
transmitted has frequency 10Hz.

Topasstheanalogsignalthrough thebandpasschannel, the

signal is modulated using a carrier frequency. Ex.The
analog signal (10Hz)ismodulatedbyacarrier
frequencyof50Hz resulting in an signal of frequency 60Hz
which can pass through our bandpass channel.

The signal is demodulated and again converted into an

digital signal at the other end as shown in the figure
below.
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Fig:BroadbandTransmissionInvolvingModulation&
Demodulation

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Fig:DataLink Layer:TheprocessofFraming

I. Physical Addressing (inside / outside senders

network)
a. The Data link layer appends the physical address in
the header of the frame before sending it to physical
layer.

b. The physical address contains the address of the

sender and receiver.

c. In case the receiver happens to be on the same

physical network as the sender; the receiver is at only
one hop from the sender and the receiver address
contains the receiver‘s physical address.
d. In case the receiver is not directly connected to the
sender, the physical address is the address of the
next node where the data is supposed to bedelivered.

II. Flowcontrol
a. The data link layer makes sure that the sender
sends the data at a speed at which the receiver can
receive it else if there is an overflow at the receiver
side the data will be lost.

b. The data link layer imposes flow control mechanism

over the sender and receiver to avoid overwhelming
of the receiver.

III. Errorcontrol
a. Thedatalinklayerimposeserrorcontrolmechanism to
identify lost or damaged frames, duplicate frames
and then retransmit them.
b. Error control information is present in the trailer of a
frame.
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IV. AccessControl
a. The data link layer imposes access control
mechanism to determine which device has right to
send data in an multipoint connection scenario.

V. MainResponsibility
i.The main responsibility of the data link layer is hop to
hop transmission of frames.

4.0.1.2 NetworkLayer
I. The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to
the receiver despite multiple intermediate devices.

II. The network layer at the sending side accepts data from the
transport layer, divides it into packets, adds addressing
information in the header and passes it to the data link layer.
At the receiving end the network layer receives the frames
sent by data link layer, converts them back into packets,
verifies the physical address (verifies if the receiver address
matches with its own address) and the send the packets to
the transport
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layer.

Fig:NetworkLayer

III. The network layer is responsible for source to destination of

deliveryof data. Hence itmayhave to routethe data through
multiple networks via multiple intermediate devices. In order
to achieve this the network layer relies on two things:
a. LogicalAddressing
b. Routing

IV. LogicalAddressing
The network layer uses logical address commonly known
as IP address to recognize devices on the network.
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An IP address is a universally unique address which

enables the network layer to identify devices outside the
sender‘s network.
The header appended by the network layer contains the
actual sender and receiver IP address.

At every hop the network layer of the intermediate node

check the IP address in the header, if its own IP address
does not match with the IP address of the receiver found
in the header, the intermediate node concludes that it is
not the final node but an intermediate node and passes
the packet to the data link layer where the data is
forwarded to the next node.

V. Routing
VI. The network layer divides data into units called
packets of equal size and bears a sequence number for
rearranging on the receiving end.

Each packet is independent of the other and may travel

using different routes to reach the receiver hence may
arrive out of turn at the receiver.

Henceeveryintermediatenodewhichencountersapackettrie
stocomputethebestpossiblepathforthe packet. The best
possible path may depend on several factors such as
congestion, number of hops, etc

This process of finding the best path is called as Routing.

Itisdoneusingroutingalgorithms.

VI. The Network layer does not perform anyflow control or error
control

VII. MainResponsibility
The main responsibility of Network Layer is
transmission of packets from source to destination

4.0.1.3 TransportLayer
I. A logical address at network layer facilitates the
transmission of datafrom source to destination device.
But the source and the destination both maybe having
multiple processes communicating with each other.
Hence it is important to deliver the data not only from
the sender to the receiver but from the correct process
on the sender to the correct process on the receiver.
The transport layer takes care of process to process
delivery of data and makes sure that it is intact and in
order.
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II. At the sending side, the transport layer receives data

from the session layer, divides it into units called
segments and sends it to the network layer. At the
receiving side, the transport layer receives packets
from the network layer, converts and arranges into
proper sequence of segments and sends it to the
session layer.

Fig:TransportLayer

III. To ensure process to process delivery the transport

layer makes use of port address to identify the data
from the sending and receiving process. A Port
Address is the name or label given to a process. It is a
16 bit address. Ex. TELNET uses port address 23,
HTTP uses port address 80. Port address is alsocalled
as Service Point Address

IV. The data can be transported in a connection oriented

or connectionless manner. If the connection is
connection oriented then all segments are received in
order else they are independent of each other and are
received out of order and have to be rearranged.

V. The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation

and reassembly of the message into segments which
bear sequence numbers. This numbering enables the
receiving transport layer to rearrange the segments in
proper order.

VI. Flow Control&Errorcontrol: thetransportlayeralso

carries out flow control and error control functions; but
unlike data link layer these are end to end rather than
node to node.
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VII. MainResponsibility
The main responsibility of the transport layer is
process to process deliveryof the entire message.
4.0.1.4 SessionLayer
I. The session layer establishes a session between the
communicating devices called dialog and
synchronizestheirinteraction.Itistheresponsibilityof the
session layer to establish and synchronize the
dialogs. It is also called the network dialog controller.

II. The session layer at the sending side accepts data

from the presentation layer adds checkpoints to it
called syn bits and passes the data to the transport
layer. At the receiving end the session layer receives
datafromthetransportlayerremovesthecheckpoints
inserted previously and passes the data to the
presentation layer.

III. The checkpoints or synchronization points is a way of

informing the status of the data transfer. Ex. A
checkpoint after first 500 bits of data will ensure that
those 500 bits are not sent again in case of
retransmission at 650thbit.

IV. Mainresponsibilityofsessionlayerisdialogcontrol
and synchronizatoin

4.0.1.5 PresentationLayer
I. The communicating devices may be having different
platforms. The presentation layer performs translation,
encryption and compression of data.
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II. The presentation layer at sending side receives the datafrom

the application layer adds header which contains information
related to encryption and compression andsends it to the
session layer. At the receiving side, the presentation layer
receives data from the session layer decompresses and
decrypts the data as required and translates it back as per
the encoding scheme used at the receiver.

Fig:PresentationLayer

III. Translation
The sending and receiving devices may run on different
platforms(hardware,softwareandoperatingsystem).Hence it
is important that they understand the messages that are
used for communicating. Hence a translationservice may be
required which is provided by the Presentation layers

IV. Compression
Compressionensuresfasterdatatransfer. The data
compressed at sender has to be decompressed at the
receiving end, both performed by the Presentation layer.

V. Encryption
It is the process of transforming the original message to
change its meaning before sending it. The reverse process
calleddecryptionhastobeperformedatthereceivingendto
recover the original message from the encrypted message.

VI. Mainresponsibility
The main responsibility of the Presentation layer is
translation, compression and encryption.

4.0.1.6ApplicationLayer
I. The application layer enables the user to
communicateitsdatatothereceiverbyproviding
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certainservices.Forex.Emailissentusing X.400
service.

Fig:ApplicationLayer

II. X500 is a directory service used to provideinformation

and access to distributed objects

III. X400 is services that provides basis for mail storage

and forwarding

IV. FTAM (File transfer, access and management)

provides access to files stored on remote computers
andmechanismfor transfer andmanage them locally.

V. MainResponsibility
MainResponsibility ofApplicationlayer istoprovide
access to network resources.
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Itisusedbyintermediatedevices.
I. In case and intermediate device like a gateway
encounters any problem like a corrupt datagram it
may use ICMP to send a message to the sender of
the datagram.

2. IGMP-Internet GroupMessage Protocol

I. It is a mechanism that allows to send the same
message to a group of recipients.

A. TransportLayer
Transport layer protocols are responsible for
transmission of data running on a process of one
machine to the correct process running on another
machine.
The transport layer contains three protocols:
1. TCP
2. UDP
3. SCTP

1. TCP– TransmissionControlProtocol
I. TCP is a reliable connection-oriented, reliable
protocol.i.e. a connection is established between the
sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.

II. It divides the data it receives from the upper layer into
segments and tags a sequence number to each
segment which is used at the receiving end for
reordering of data.

2. UDP– UserDatagramProtocol
I. UDP is a simple protocol used for process to process
transmission.

II. It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for

applications that do not require flow control or error
control.

III. It simply adds port address, checksum and length

information to the data it receives from the upper
layer.

3. SCTP–StreamControlTransmissionProtocol
I. SCTPisarelativelynewprotocoladdedtothe transport
layer of TCP/IP protocol suite.
II. ItcombinesthefeaturesofTCPandUDP.
III. It is used in applications like voice over Internet
andhas a much broader range of applications
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B. ApplicationLayer
I. The Application Layer is a combination of Session,
Presentation & Application Layers of OSI models and
define high level protocols like File Transfer (FTP),
Electronic Mail (SMTP), Virtual Terminal (TELNET),
Domain Name Service (DNS), etc.

5.0 ADDRESSINGINTCP/IP

TheTCP/IPprotocolsuitedinvolves4differenttypesof
addressing:
1. PhysicalAddress
2. LogicalAddress
3. Port Address
4. SpecificAddress

APPLICATION SPECIFIC
Processes
LAYER ADDRESS

TRANSPORT PORT
TCP UDP SCTP
LAYER ADDRESS

NETWORK IP and other LOGICAL

LAYER associated ADDRESS
protocols

HOST TO
Protocolsofunderlyingnetworkused at PHYSICAL
NETWORK
physical & data link layer ADDRESS
LAYER

Fig:AddressinginTCP/IPmodel
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CHAPTER THREE
TRANSMISSION MODES AND MPAIRMENTS

TRANSMISSIONMODES

Data is transmitted between two digital devices on the

network in the form of bits.

Transmission mode refers to the mode used for transmitting

the data. The transmission medium may be capable of
sending only a single bit in unit time or multiple bits in unit
time.

When a single bit is transmitted in unit time the transmission

modeusedisSerialTransmissionandwhenmultiplebitsare sent
in unit time the transmission mode used is called Parallel
transmission.

TypesofTransmissionModes:
There are two basic types of transmission modes Serial
and Parallel as shown in the figure below.

Serial transmission is further categorized into

Synchronous and Asynchronous Serial transmission.

Fig.Types ofTransmissionModes

9.0.1 ParallelTransmission

ItinvolvessimultaneoustransmissionofNbitsoverN
differentchannels
Parallel Transmission increases transmission speed by a
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factor of N over serial transmission
Disadvantage of parallel transmission is the cost involved, N
channels have to be used, hence, it can be used for short
distance communication only
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Fig.ParallelTransmissionofData overN=8 channels

ExampleofParallelTransmissionisthecommunication between
CPU and the Projector.

9.0.2 SerialTransmission

InSerialTransmission,asthenamesuggestsdatais transmitted
serially, i.e. bit by bit, one bit at a time.
Sinceonlyonebithastobesentinunittimeonlyasingle channel is
required.

Fig.SerialTransmissionofDataoverN=8channels Types of

Serial Transmission:
Depending upon the timing of transmission of data there are
two types of serial transmission as described below
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9.0.2.1 ASynchronousTransmission

In asynchronous serial transmission the sender and receiver

are not synchronized.
Thedata issentingroupof8bitsi.e.inbytes.
The sender can start data transmission at any time
instantwithout informing the receiver.
Toavoidconfusingthereceiverwhilereceivingthedata,
―start‖and―stop‖bitsareinsertedbeforeandafterevery group of
8 bits as shown below

0 1BYTE 1

Fig: Startand Bitbefore andaftereverydatabyte

Thestartbitisindicatedby―0‖andstopbitisindicatedby
―1‖.
The sender and receiver may not be synchronized as seen
above but at the bit level they have to be synchronized i.e.
the duration of onebitneedsto be sameforboth senderand
receiver for accurate data transmission.
There may be gaps in between the data transmission
indication that there is no data being transmitted from
sender. Ex. Assume a user typing at uneven speeds, at
times there is no data being transmitted from Keyboard
tothe CPU.
Following is the Diagram for Asynchronous Serial
Transmission.

Fig:AsynchronousSerialTransmission
 38

Advantages
1. CheapandEffectiveimplementation
2. Canbeusedforlowspeedcommunication

Disadvantages
Insertionof startbits,stopbitsandgapsmakeasynchronous
transmission slow.

Application
Keyboard

9.0.2.2 SynchronousTransmission

In Synchronous Serial Transmission, the sender and

receiver are highly synchronized.
Nostart,stopbitsareused.
Insteadacommonmasterclockisusedforreference.
The sender simplysend stream of data bits ingroupof 8 bits
to the receiver without any start or stop bit.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to regroup the bits into
units of 8 bits once they are received.
When no data is being transmitted a sequence of 0‘sand 1‘s
indicating IDLE is put on the transmission medium by the
sender.

Fig:AsynchronousSerialTransmission

Advantage
1. Therearenostartbits,stopbitsorgapsbetweendata units
2. Sincetheaboveareabsentdatatransmissionis faster.
3. Duetosynchronizationtherearenotimingerrors.
 39

9.0.2.3 Comparisonofserialandparalleltransmission

Sr.no Parameter Parallel Serialtransmission

transmission
1 Numberofwire Nwire 1wire
required to
transmit N bits
2 Number of bits Nbits 1bit
transmitted
simultaneously
3 Speed of data False Slow
transfer
4 Cost Higher due to Low,sinceonlyone
more number of wire is used
conductor
5 Application Short distance Long distance
communication computer to
such as computer computer
to printer communication.
communication

9.1 TransmissionImpairments&Types
Data is transmitted through transmission medium which are
not perfect.
Theimperfectioncausessignalimpairment.
Due to the imperfection error is introduced in the transmitted
datai.e.the original signal at the beginning of the
transmission is not the same as the signal at the Receiver.
Therearethreecausesofimpairment:attenuation, distortion, and
noise as shown below:

Fig:TransmissionImpairmentTypes
 40

9.1.1 Attenuation

• Attenuation results in loss of energy. When a signal travels

through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming
the resistance of the medium.
• Theelectricalenergyinthesignalmayconvertedtoheat.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify
the signal. Figure below shows the effect of attenuation and
amplification.

Fig.Attenuation

9.1.2 Distortion
Distortionchangestheshapeofthesignalasshown below

Fig. Distortion

9.1.3 Noise
Noise is any unwanted signal that is mixed or combined
with the original signal during transmission.
Duetonoisetheoriginalsignalisalteredandsignalreceived is
not same as the one sent.
41
 42

TRANSMISSIONMEDIUM

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Transmissionmediaisameansbywhichacommunication signal
is carried from one system to another
• A transmission medium can be defined as anything that can
carry information from a source to a destination.
• Thetransmissionmediumisusuallyfreespace,metalliccable or
fiber – optic cable.

Figure: Transmission of data from sender to receiver

througha medium
10.0.1 Categoriesoftransmissionmedia
 43
Figure:CategoriesofTransmissionMedium
 44

GUIDEDMEDIA
• Guided Transmission media uses a cabling system that
guides the data signals along a specific path.
• Guided media also known as Bounded media, which are
those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic
cable.
• Out of these twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable transport
signals in the form of electric signals and fiber-optic cable
transport signals in the form of light.
• Types:
1. Twisted-PairCable
2. CoaxialCable
3. Fiber-OpticCable

10.0.2 Twisted-paircable

Figure:TwistedPairCable

• Thewiresistwistedtwistedtogetherinpairs.
• Each pair would consist of wire used for the +ve data signal
and a wire used for the —ve data signal. Any noise that
appearson+ve/—vewireofthepairwouldoccuron the other
wire.
• Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180
degrees out of phase (180 degree phases or definition of
opposite polarity) when the noise appears on both wires, it
cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving used.
• Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in a system
that uses a balanced line method of transmission.
 45

10.0.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)& Shielded

Twisted Pair Cable (STP)

Fig.UnshieldedTwistedPairCable

Fig.ShieldedTwistedPairCable

• Cableswiththeshield are calledshieldedtwistedpair and

commonly abbreviated STP.
• Cables without a shield are called unshielded twisted pair or
UTP.
• Twisting the wires together results in characteristics
impedance for the cable.
• UTPorunshieldedtwistedpaircableisusedonEthernet
• UTPcablesareusedforEthernetcablingwhere4twistedpair cables (a
total of 8 wires are used)

• 10.3.2Co-Axial Cable

Figure:Co-axialcable

• Coaxialcableconsistsof2conductors.
• Theinnerconductoriscontainedinsidetheinsulatorwiththe
other conductor weaves around it providing a shield.
• Aninsulatingprotectivecoatingcalledajacketcoversthe outer
conductor.
 46

• The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside

electrical signals.
• The distance betweentheouter conductor (Shield) and inner
conductor plus the type of material used for insulating the
inner conductor determine the cable properties or
impedance. The excellent control of the impedance
characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be
transferred than twisted pair cable.

10.3.3FibreOpticCable

Figure FiberOpticCable

• Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can

carryinformation at frequencies in the visible light spectrum.
• The typicalopticalfiberconsistsof a verynarrowstrand of glass
called the cladding.
• Atypicalcorediameteris62.5microns.

• Typically cladding has a diameter of 125 minors. Coating the

cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called
the jacket.
• The device generating the message has it in electromagnetic
form (electrical signal); this has to be converted into light (i.e.
optical signal) to send it on optic fiber cable. The process of
converting light to electric signal is done on the receiving side.

Advantages:
1. Small size and light weight: The size of the optical fibers is
very small.Therefore a large number of optical fibers can fit into
a cable of small diameter.

2. Easy availability and low cost:The material used for the

manufacturingofopticalfibersis―Silicaglass‖.thismaterialis easily
available. So the optical fibers cost lower than the cables with
metallic conductors.
 47

3. No electrical or electromagnetic interference: Since the

transmission takes place in the form of light rays the signal isnot
affected due to any electrical or electromagneticInterference.

4. Large Bandwidth:As the light rays have a very high frequency

in GHz range, the bandwidth of the optical fiber is extremely
large.

5. Other advantages: - No cross talk inside the opticalfiber cable.

Signal can be sent up to 100 times faster.

10.1 UNGUIDED(WIRELESS)TRANSMISSION
MEDIUM

• Unguided media transport data without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.

• Ituseswirelesselectromagneticsignalstosenddata.

• TherearethreetypesofUnguidedMedia
(i) Radiowaves
(ii) Microwaves
(iii) Infrared.

• Before understanding the different types of wireless

transmission medium, let us first understand the ways in which
wirelesssignalstravel.Thesesignalscanbesentorpropagated in
the following three ways:
1. Ground-wavepropagation
2. Sky-wavepropagation
3. Line-of-sightpropagation
1. Ground-wavepropagation

Figure:GroundPropagationofwaves
 48

CharacteristicsofGround-wavepropagationareasfollows:
i. Followscontouroftheearth
ii. CanPropagateconsiderabledistances
iii. Frequenciesupto2MHz
iv. Example
a.AMradio

2. Sky-wavepropagation

Figure :ofwaves

CharacteristicsofSkyPropagationareasfollows:
i. Signalreflectedfrom ionized layerof atmosphere back down
to earth
ii. Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and earth‘s surface
iii. Reflectioneffectcausedbyrefraction
iv. Examples
a. Amateurradio
b. CBradio

3. Line-of-sightpropagation

Figure: LineofSight Propagation ofwaves

CharacteristicsofLineofSightPropagationareasfollows:
 49

i. Transmitting andreceivingantennas mustbewithinlineof sight

a. Satellitecommunication–signalabove30MHznot
reflected by ionosphere
b. Groundcommunication–antennaswithineffective
lineofsitedueto refraction

1. Radiowaves:
• Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz
and 1GHz are normally called radio waves.

• Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits

radio waves they are propagated in all directions. This means
that sending and receiving antenna do not have to he aligned. A
sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any
receiving antenna.

• Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky

mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio waves a
good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM
radio.

• Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies

can penetrate walls. It is an advantage because; an AM radio
can receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage
because we cannot isolate a communication to first inside or
outside a building.

2. Microwaves:
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300
GHz are called microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits

microwaves they can be narrowly focused. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of
antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of
aligned antennas.

• Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with

the mounted antennas needs to be in direct sight of each other,
towers that are far apart need to be very tall, the curvature ofthe
earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate using microwaves, Repeaters are often
needed for long distance communication very high frequency
microwaves cannot penetrate walls.

• Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this
means of transmission
 50

3. Infrared
• Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400
GHz can be used for short range communication.

• Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate

walls. This helps to prevent interference between one system
and another. Infrared Transmissioninone room cannot be
affected by the infrared transmission in another room.

• Infrared band, has an excellent potential for data transmission.

Transfer digital data is possible with a high speed with a very
high frequency. There are number of computer devices which
are used to send the data through infrared medium e.g.
keyboard mice, PCs and printers. There are some
manufacturers provide a special part called the IrDA port that
allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.

10.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN WIRED AND

WIRELESS MEDIA

Wiredmedia Wirelessmedia
The signal energy is contained The signal energy propagates
and guided within a solid in the form of unguided
medium electromagnetic waves.

Twisted pair wires, coaxialcable, Radioandinfraredlightsare

optical fiber cables arethe theexamplesofwireless media.
examples of wired media.

Used for point to point Used for radio broadcasting in

communication all direction

Wiredmedialeadtodiscrete Wireless media leads to

network topology continuous network topology

Additional transmission capacity It is not possible procure

can be procuredbyaddingmore additional capacity.
wire

Installationiscostlyandtime Installation needs less time

consuming and money
Attenuation depends Attenuationisproportionalto
exponentially on the distance square of the distance.
 51

10.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN TWISTED PAIR

CABLE, CO-AXIAL CABLE AND OPTICAL FIBER

Twistedpaircable Co-axialcable Opticalfiber

Transmission of Transmission of Signal transmission

signals take place in signals take place in takes place in an
the electrical form the inner conductor optical form over a
over the metallic of the cable glass fiber.
conducting wires.

Noiseimmunityis low. Higher noise Higher noise

Therefore more immunity than the immunityasthelight
distortion twisted pair cable rays are unaffected
due to the presence by the electrical
of shielding noise.
conductor

Affected due to Less affected due to Not affected by the

external magnetic external magnetic external magnetic
field field field.

Short circuit Short circuit Shortcircuitisnot

between the two between the two possible
conductor is conductor is
possible possible

Cheapest Moderately Expensive

expensive

Can support low Moderately high Very high data

data rates data rate rates.

Lowbandwidth Moderately high Veryhighbandwidth

bandwidth

Easyto installed Installation is fairly Installationisdifficult

easy
 52

CHAPTER FOUR

NETWORKTOPOLOGIES

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an outline on Network topology is the

layoutpatternofinterconnectionsofthevariouselements
(links,nodes,etc.)ofa computerorbiologicalnetwork. Network
topologies may be physical or logical.

Physical topologyrefers to the physical design of a network

including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical
topologyrefers to how data is actually transferred in a network as
opposed to its physical design. In general physical topology relates
toacorenetworkwhereaslogicaltopologyrelatestobasicnetwork. This
chapter also presents an insight into the various networking
strategies and the platform needed fornetworking.

11.0 OVERVIEW OF NETWORK

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked

in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange
files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Twoverycommontypesofnetworksinclude: Local
Area Network (LAN)
WideAreaNetwork(WAN)

YoumayalsoseereferencestoaMetropolitanAreaNetworks (MAN), a
Wireless LAN (WLAN), or a Wireless WAN (WWAN).
11.1 WHATISANETWORKTYPE
 53
11.1.1 LocalAreaNetwork
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined toa
relatively small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area
such as a writing lab, school, or building.

Computers connected to a network are broadly categorized

asserversorworkstations. Servers are generally not used by
humansdirectly, butrather run continuouslyto provide"services" to
the other computers (and their human users) on the network.
Services provided canincludeprintingandfaxing, software hosting,
file storage and sharing, messaging, data storage and retrieval,
complete access control (security) for the network's resources, and
many others.

Workstations are called such because they typically do have

a human user which interacts with the network through them.
Workstations were traditionally considered a desktop, consisting of
a computer, keyboard, display, and mouse, or a laptop, with with
integrated keyboard, display, and touchpad. With the advent of the
tablet computer, and the touch screen devices such as iPad and
iPhone, our definition of workstation is quickly evolving to include
those devices, because of their ability to interact with the network
and utilize network services.

Servers tend to be more powerful than workstations,

although configurations are guided by needs. For example, a group
of servers might be located in a secure area, away from humans,
and only accessed through the network. In such cases, it would be
common for the servers to operate without a dedicated display or
keyboard. However, the size and speed of the server's
processor(s), hard drive, and main memory might add dramatically
to the cost of the system. On the other hand, a workstation might
notneedasmuchstorage or workingmemory, butmight require an
expensive display to accommodate the needs of its user. Every
computer on a network should be appropriately configured for its
use.

11.1.2 WideAreaNetwork
 54

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger

geographic areas, such as Maharashtra, India, or the world.
Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to
connect this type of global network.

Using a WAN, schools in Maharashtra can communicatewith

places like Tokyo in a matter of seconds, without paying enormous
phone bills. Two users a half-world apart with workstations
equipped with microphones and a webcams might teleconference
in real time. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers, bridges,
and routers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global
communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a
WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN.

11.2 Comparingtypesofnetworkcoverage

Thetablebelowcomparesthethreetypesofnetworks:

LAN MAN WAN

Can incorporate multiple Uses data
Relativelysmall. transmission
LANs.
Contained within a networks to
Containedwithinasinglecity or
single building or incorporate LANs
campus. metropolitan area. andMANs.
Generallyinexpensive Essentially
Expensivetoimplementand
to implement and unlimited
maintain.
maintain. geographicarea.
Typically owned Cost varieswidely,
Typicallyownedbyprivate
privately. dependingonhow
providers.
itisconfigured.

11.3 AN ILLUSTRATED EXAMPLE OF A

UNIVERSITYNETWORK
AdvantagesofInstallingaNetwork

User access control.

Modern networks almostalwayshaveone or moreservers
whichallowscentralizedmanagementforusersandfor
networkresourcestowhichtheyhaveaccess. User credentials
on a privately-owned and operated network may be as
simple as a user name and password, but with ever-
increasing attention to computing security issues, these
servers are critical to ensuring that sensitive information is
only available to authorized users.
 55

Information storing and sharing.

Computersallowuserstocreateandmanipulateinformation.
Information takes on a life of its own on a network. The
network provides both a place to store the information and
mechanisms to share that information with other network
users.

Connections.
Administrators,instructors,andevenstudentsandguests can
be connected using the campus network.

Services.
The institution can provide services, such as registration,
college directories, course schedules, access to research,
and email accounts, and many others. (Remember, network
services are generally provided by servers).

Internet.
The institution can provide network users with access to the
internet, via an internet gateway.

Computing resources.
The institution can provide access to special purpose
computingdeviceswhichindividualuserswouldnotnormally
own. For example, an institution network might have high-
speed high quality printers strategically located around a
campus for instructor or student use.

Flexible Access.
Institution networks allow students to access theirinformation
from connected devices throughout the school. Students can
begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a
public access area of the network, then go to the media
center after school to finish their work. Students can also
work cooperatively through the network.

WorkgroupComputing.
 56

Collaborative software allows many users to work on a

document or project concurrently. For example, educators
located at various institution within a county could
simultaneously contribute their ideas about new curriculum
standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or website.

DisadvantagesofInstallingaNetwork

Expensive to Install.
Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags. Cabling,
network cards, routers, bridges, firewalls, wireless access
points, and software can get expensive, and the installation
would certainly require the services of technicians. But, with
the ease of setup of home networks, a simple network with
internet access can be setup for a small campus in an
afternoon.

Requires Administrative Time.

Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time
and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only
to find that they did not budget for the necessary
administrative support.

Servers Fail.
Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down"
the entire network may come to a halt. Good network design
practices say that critical network services (provided by
servers) should be redundant on the network whenever
possible.

Cables May Break.

The Topology chapter presents information about thevarious
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are
designed to minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable;
with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the
entire network.

Security and compliance.

Network security is expensive. It is also very important.
Aninstitutionnetworkwouldpossiblybesubjecttomore
 57

stringent security requirements than a similarly-sized

corporate network, because of its likelihood of storing
personal and confidential information of network users, the
danger of which can be compounded if any network users
are minors.A great deal of attention must bepaid to network
services to ensure all network content is appropriate for the
network community it serves.

11.4 WHATISATOPOLOGY?
A topology is a description of the layout of a specific region
or area. A network topology is a description of the layout of the
region or area covered by that network.

There are two types of connections that describe how many

devices connect to a single cable or segment of transmission
media. They are: point-to-point and multi-point.

Point-to-point connections provide a direct link between two

devices; for example, a computer connected directly to a printer, or
a modem to a mainframe.

Multi-point connections provide a link between three or more

devices on a network. All computer networks rely upon point-to-
point and multi-point connections.

11.4.1 TheTechnicalConnotationofTopology

The virtual shape or structure of a network is referred as

topology.

The pattern or layout of interconnections of different

elements or nodes of a computer network is a network topologythat
might be logical or physical.

However, the complete physical structure of the cable (or

transmission media) is called the physical topology. The physical
topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,
computers, and other peripherals.

The way data flows through the network (or transmission

media) is called the logical topology. A logical topology is the
method used to pass information between workstations.
 58

11.4.2 WhataretheBasicTypesofTopology?

Therearesevenbasictopologiesinthestudyof networktopology:
1. Point-to-pointtopology,
2. Bus(point-to-multipoint)topology,
3. Ringtopology,
4. Star topology,
5. Hybridtopology,
6. Meshtopologyand
7. Treetopology.

The interconnections between computers whether logical or

physical are the foundation of this classification.

Logical topology is the way a computer in a given network

transmits information, not the way it looks or connected, along with
the varying speeds of cables used from one network to another.
On the other hand the physical topology is affected by a number
of factors:

Troubleshootingtechnique,
Installation cost,
Officelayoutand
Cables‘ types.

The physical topology is figured out on the basis of a

network‘s capability to access media and devices, the fault
tolerance desired and the cost of telecommunications circuits.

The classification of networks by the virtue of their physical span is

as follows: Local Area Networks (LAN), Wide Area Internetworks
(WAN) and Metropolitan Area Networks or campus or building
internetworks.

11.4.3 How IsthePhysicalTopologyClassified?

Point-to-Point Network Topology

Itisthebasicmodeloftypicaltelephony.Thesimplest
topologyisapermanentconnectionbetweentwopoints.Thevalue
 59

of a demanding point-to-point network is proportionate to the

number of subscribers‘ potential pairs. It is possible to establish a
permanent circuit within many switched telecommunication
systems: the telephone present in a lobby would always connect to
the same port, no matter what number is being dialed. A switch
connection would save the cost between two points where the
resources could be released when no longer required.

Bus Network Topology

LANs that make use of bus topology connects each node to
a single cable. Some connector connects each computer or server
to the bus cable. For avoiding the bouncing of signal a terminator is
used at each end of the bus cable. The source transmits a signal
that travels in both directions and passes all machines unless it
findsthesystemwithIPaddress,theintendedrecipient.Thedatais
ignored in case the address is unmatched. The installation of one
cable makes bus topology an inexpensive solution as compared to
othertopologies;howeverthemaintenancecostishigh.If thecable is
broken all systems would collapse.

o Linear Bus:If all network nodes are connected to a combine

transmission medium that has two endpoints the Bus is Linear. The
data transmitted between these nodes is transmitted over the
combine medium and received by all nodes simultaneously.

o Distributed Bus:If all network nodes are connected to a

combine transmission medium that has more than two endpoints
created by branching the main section of the transmitting medium.

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a

terminator at each end (See fig. 1). All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
Abustopologyusesonelongcable(backbone)towhichnetwork
 60

devices are either directly attached or are attached by using short

drop cables. Because all workstations share this bus, a workstation
checks for any information that might be coming down
thebackbone before sending their messages. All messages pass
the other workstations on the way to their destinations. Each
workstation then checks the address of each message to see if it
matches its own. Note that bus network topologies, the backbone
must be terminated at both ends to remove the signal from the wire
after it has passed all devices on the network.

Fig. 1.Linear Bustopology

AdvantagesofaLinearBusTopology

Easytoconnectacomputerorperipheraltoalinearbus. Requires
less cable length than a star topology.

DisadvantagesofaLinearBusTopology

Entirenetworkshutsdownifthereisabreakinthemain cable.
Terminatorsarerequiredatbothendsofthebackbone cable.
Difficulttoidentifytheproblemiftheentirenetworkshuts down.
Notmeanttobeusedasastand-alonesolutioninalarge building.
 61

StarNetwork Topology
The topology when each network host is connected to a
central hub in LAN is called Star. Each node is connected to
thehub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic passes through
the hub that serves as a repeater or signal booster. The easiest
topology to install is hailed for its simplicity to add more nodes but
criticized for making hub the single point of failure. The network
could be BMA (broadcast multi-access) or NBMA (non-broadcast
multi-access) depending on whether the signal is automatically
propagated at the hub to all spokes or individually spokes
withthose who are addressed.

o Extended Star:A network that keeps one or more than one

repeaters between the central node or hub and the peripheral orthe
spoke node, supported by the transmitter power of the hub and
beyond that supported by the standard of the physical layer of the
network.

o Distributed Star:The topology is based on the linear

connectivity that is Daisy Chained with no top or centre level
connection points.

AdvantagesofaStarTopology

Easytoinstallandwire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing
devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 62

DisadvantagesofaStarTopology

Requiresmorecablelengththanalineartopology.
If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are
disabled.
Moreexpensivethanlinearbustopologiesbecauseofthe cost of
the hubs, etc.

RingNetworkTopology
Ring topology is one of the old ways of building computer
network design and it is pretty much obsolete. FDDI, SONET or
Token Ring technologies are used to build ring technology. It is not
widely popular in terms of usability but incase if you find itanywhere
it will mostly be in schools or office buildings.

Such physical setting sets up nodes in a circular manner

where the data could travel in one direction where each device on
the right serves as a repeater to strengthen the signal as it moves
ahead.

Mesh Network Topology

The exponent of the number of subscribers is proportionate to the
value of the fully meshed networks.

o Fully Connected: For practical networks such topology is

too complex and costly but highly recommended for small number
of interconnected nodes.
 63

o Partially Connected:This set up involves the connection of

some nodes to more than one nodes in the network via point-to-
point link. In such connection it is possible to take advantage of the
redundancy without any complexity or expense of establishing a
connection between each node.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topologies are a combination of two or more different
topologies. WANs sometimes have hybrid topologies because they
connect a variety of LAN topologies. The big advantage of hybrid
topologies is that they connect disparate topologies. However, the
disadvantage of hybrid topologies is that they are potentially
complex to establish and manage.
Tree Network Topology
The top level of the hierarchy, the central root node is connected to
some nodes that are a level low in the hierarchy by a point-to-point
link where the second level nodes that are already connected to
central root would be connected to the nodes in the third level by a
point-to-point link. The central root would be the only node having
no higher node in the hierarchy. The tree hierarchy is symmetrical.
The BRANCHING FACTOR is the fixed number of nodesconnected
to the next level in the hierarchy. Such network must have at least
three levels. Physical Linear Tree Topology would be of a network
whose Branching Factor is one.
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AdvantagesofaTreeTopology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supportedbyseveralhardwareandsoftwarevenders.

DisadvantagesofaTreeTopology

Overalllengthofeachsegmentislimitedbythetypeofcabling used.
Ifthebackbonelinebreaks,theentiresegmentgoesdown. More
difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

ConsiderationsWhenChoosingaTopology
Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensiveway
to install a network; you do not have to purchase
concentrators.

Lengthofcableneeded.Thelinearbusnetworkuses shorter
lengths of cable.

Future growth.With astartopology, expandinga network.

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