Introduction to Immunology

Tankeshwar Acharya
Asst. Professor
THE WAR IS ONGOING
 WHAT IS IMMUNITY ?
Protection from disease and the ability to respond to
foreign substances

WHAT IS AN IMMUNE SYSTEM ?

Collection of molecules, cells, tissues and organs that
function to provide immunity against foreign substances

WHAT IS AN IMMUNE RESPONSE ?

A collective and coordinated response to foreign
substances mediated by the immune system to provide
immunity
 Immune
response (battle
or storyline)

Mechanisms
and processes

Immune system
(soldiers and
weapons)
Foreign
substance Cells, organs
(alien)

How to
recognise
foreign
substances
 Critical features of the immune system

• Can differentiate between self and non-self (foreign)

• Has specificity for foreign substances
• Has immense diversity to differentiate diverse foreign
substances
• Can eliminate foreign substances
• Has different responses for harmful (dangerous) and
harmless foreign substances
• Can retain memory of foreign substances (immunity)
• Constantly evolving and improving
 Role in homeostasis and disease processes

That clean up process:

• Removes dead or dying cells to maintain healthy organs
• Repairs tissue after injury

• These two extremes:

• Unresponsive immune system can promote disease progression e.g.
acute and chronic infection, tumour growth
• Uncontrolled immune system can cause excessive inflammation e.g.
diabetes, auto-immune disease, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis
What is the role
of these walls in
a war?
 Components of the immune system

1. Physical barriers (e.g. skin, mucus,

gastric acids)

2. Blood proteins (e.g. complement,

antibodies, cytokines)

3. Cells (leukocytes and

endothelial/structural cells)

4. Lymphatics and lymphoid organs

(lymphatic vessels, primary and
secondary lymphoid organs)
Obstacle Racing; Just winning one obstacle is not enough
 Specific, Systemic, has Memory

Humoral Immunity
Cellular defenses

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 Innate and adaptive
immune systems
INNATE ADAPTIVE
• Ancient (non-vertebrates, >500 • More recently evolved (jawed
million years) vertebrates, ~360 million years)
• Early immune response (within • Late immune response (few days to
hours) lifetime)
• Recognises specific features of foreign
• Recognises common features of substances
foreign substances
• Immense diversity with constant
• Limited diversity, germline encoded change during lifetime
• No memory • Retains memory (immunity)

• Includes physical barriers, • Includes T and B lymphocytes and

antimicrobial molecules at barriers, molecules produced by these
complement, phagocytes, lymphocytes (antibodies and some
granulocytes and some cytokines)
lymphocytes and molecules
produced by these leukocytes
 The bone marrow and
thymus are primary
lymphoid organs

• Most leukocytes are

derived from stem
cells in the bone
marrow

• T lymphocytes of the
adaptive immune
system mature
further in the
thymus

Adaptive Innate
 Leukocytes circulate

• All leukocytes
circulate the vascular
system (“white blood
cell”)
• T and B lymphocytes
also circulate through
secondary lymphoid
organs (lymph nodes,
spleen and bone
marrow)
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 Phagocytes
• Phagocytes (Neutrophils and
Macrophages): are cells
whose primary function is to
identify, ingest, and destroy
microbes.
• Destroy ingested microbes
through direct contact and by
secreting proteins
• Communicate with other
cells in ways that promote or
regulate immune responses.

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 Neutrophils (also called Polymorphonuclear
leukocytes)

• Produced in Bone Marrow, 1*10^11 per

day , life span 6 hours
• Arise from a common lineage with
mononuclear phagocytes.
• If a circulating neutrophils is not recruited
into a site of inflammation within 6 hours, it undergoes
apoptosis and is usually phagocytosed by resident
macrophages in the liver or spleen.
• After entering tissues, neutrophils function for a few
hours and then die.

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 Neutrophils (also called Polymorphonuclear
leukocytes)

• Most abundant population of circulating WBCs and mediate

the earliest phase of inflammatory reactions.
• Neutrophils may migrate to sites of infection within a few
hours after the entry of microbes.
• Cytoplasm contains granules of two types.
1. The majority, called specific granules, are filled with enzymes
such as lysozyme, collagenase, and elastase.
2. Azurophilic granules: lysosomes containing enzyme and other
microbicidal substances including defensins and cathelicidins.

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 Mononuclear Phagocytes
• Consists of cells whose primary
function is phagocytosis and that play
central roles in innate and adaptive
immunity.
• Originate in bone marrow-common
precursors
• Incompletely differentiated
cell: Monocyte

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Macrophages in different tissues have given special
names.
– Microglial cells-Central Nervous System
– Kupffer cells: Lining the vascular sinusoids of the liver
– Alveolar macrophages- Pulmonary airways
– Osteoclasts: Multinucleate phagocytes in bone

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 Functions of Macrophages
• Ingest and kill microbes.
• Ingest dead host cells as part of the cleaning up process
after infection or tissue injury or apoptotic cells.
• Activated macrophages secrete proteins, called
cytokines, that bind to signaling receptors on other
cells and thereby instruct those cells to respond in
ways that contribute to host defense.
• Serve as Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) that display
antigens to activate T lymphocytes.
• Promote repair of damaged tissues by stimulating new
blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) and synthesis of
collagen-rich extracellular matrix (fibrosis).

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 Mast Cells

• Mast cells are bone marrow

derived cells that are present
in the skin and mucosal epithelium and contain abundant
cytoplasmic granules filled with cytokines histamine, and other
mediators.
• These can be secreted when
mast cells are triggered,
leading to allergic and
inflammatory diseases.
• involved in wound healing and
defense against pathogens.

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 Basophils
• Basophils are blood granulocytes with many
structural and functional similarities to mast cells.
• Contains granules that bind basic dyes.
• Derived from bone marrow progenitors
Constitute less than 1% of blood leukocytes.
• Not present in tissues (normally) but may be seen/recruited in
some inflammatory reactions.
• Express IgG and IgE receptors, bind IgE and can be triggered by
antigen binding to the IgE
• Importance in host defense and allergic reactions is uncertain.

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 Eosinophils
• Blood granulocytes that express cytoplasmic
granules containing enzymes that are harmful to
the cell walls of parasites
• The granules of Eosinophils contain basic proteins
that bind acidic dyes such as eosin.
• Normally present in peripheral tissues, especially in
mucosal linings of the respiratory, gastrointestinal,
and genitourinary tracts
• Eosinophilic functions include:
– movement to inflamed areas,
– killing cells, anti-parasitic and bactericidal activity,
– participating in immediate allergic reactions, and
– modulating inflammatory responses.

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What If, first responders cant handle the
situation?
 Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)
• Cell populations that are
specialized to capture
microbial and other antigens,
display them to lymphocytes,
and provide signals that
stimulate the proliferation
and differentiation of the
lymphocytes.
• Dendritic cells, Macrophages
and B cells present peptide
to CD4 T Cells.
• Almost all nucleated cells
present antigen to CD8 T
cells.

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 Dendritic Cells
• Dendritic cells are the most important
APCs for activating naïve T cells
• Have long membranous projections
and phagocytic capabilities
• Part of myeloid lineage of
hematopoietic cells
• Display microbial antigens to T
lymphocytes
• Play major roles in innate responses
to infections and in linking innate and
adaptive immune responses.
• Follicular Dendritic Cells- will be
discussed later

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 Lymphocytes
• Cells of adaptive immunity
• Only cells in the body that express clonally distributed antigen
receptors, each with a fine specificity for a different antigenic
determinant.
– Each clone of lymphocytes consists of the progeny of one cell and
express antigen receptors with a single specificity.
– Millions of lymphocyte clones are present in our body

• Lymphocytes consist of distinct subsets that are different in

their functions and protein products.

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 Adaptive Immune Response
 These cells are trained and can recognize
who is friend and who is foe.
 They have to ensure that only enemies are
killed

 B lymphocytes
• The cells that produce antibodies (were called B cells
because in birds they were found to mature in an organ called the bursa of fabricius.)

• B cell maturation occur in the bone marrow.

• Major subsets of B cells are (found in distinct
anatomic location within lymphoid tissues):
1. Follicular B Cells
2. Marginal B Cells
3. B-1 B Cells

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 Naive B Cells
 Mature B Cells
 Plasma Cells
 Memory B Cells
 What if enemies are hiding inside cells? Inside
any other cells including phagocytic cells

 How to get rid of them?

How to know which of our cells are infected
and which are not?

So that, we can protect non-infected cells and

get rid of infected ones.
 T lymphocytes
• T lymphocytes refer to thymus-derived lymphocytes.
• The precursors of T cells arise in the bone marrow,
migrate and mature in the thymus.
• The mediators of Cellular immunity
• The major T cell subsets are
– Helper T lymphocytes (CD4+ )
– Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CD8+ )
– CD4+ regulatory T cells
– γδ T lymphocytes
– Memory T cells

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 Natural Killer Cells
• Lymphocytes but not T or B cells.
• Have similar effector functions as
CTLs, but their receptors are distinct
from B or T cell antigen receptors
• Not MHC restricted, kills the cells
naturally

• Functions:
– Cytotoxic killing of virus-infected
or altered self cells (innate
immunity)

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Thank You

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