MODULE II

CHAPTER 2:

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR IMPACT

TO EPP TEACHING

Prepared by:

SUNSHINE GRACE B. AUSTERO, LPT

Module Developer & Course Coach

M-EPP 2 12
 Basilan State College
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
_______________________________________________________
MODULE 2
Course Code M- EPP 2 Week/Day 3-4
1 Session (3hrs.)
EDUKASYONG PANTAHANAN AT 9:00 –10:30 T Th
Duration &
Course Description PANGKABUHAYAN WITH 1:00 – 2:30 M W
Schedule 2:30 – 4:00 T Th
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
4:00 – 5:30 M W
Chapter 2: Learning Theories and
Lesson/Topic Lesson No. 2
thei Impact to EPP Teaching
At the end of this chapter, the student can:
Learning Outcome/s ▪ Explain and be guided by the different learning theories needed in
teaching EPP.
Values Integration • Commitment and Perseverance
Principles of Teaching and Teaching Strategies

Major Categories in The Cognitive Domain of The Taxonomy

of Educational Objectives (Bloom, 1956).
Reference/s
Edukasyong Pantahan at Pangkabuhayan with Entrepreneurship –
Module for Students prepared by Diana F. Alegrado

Internet: pdfcoffee.com
Course Coach SUNSHINE GRACE B. AUSTERO, LPT

I – ACTIVATION OF PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE

What a beautiful day! Don’t let the troubles of yesterday ruin the freshness of this
day.Whatever comes your way, do not give up. Keep fighting and keep dreaming! Now, it’s
time to boost your mind in discovering and learning new things in this chapter. Have fun and
enjoy! ☺♥

REMINDERS!
▪ Read the learning materials below and do the activities given to you and answer the following questions for
your assessment in your Activity/Answer sheet in every WORKSHEET given at the end of this module.
▪ Worksheet will be returned to the course coach for record purposes.
▪ NOTE: DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THE MODULE!

☺☺☺

M-EPP 2 13
 Trying to figure out what words you can unjumble? Are you ready to arrange the jumbled
letters into words? Challenge yourself with this activity. You may start now! Goodluck and
smile! ☺

Activity 1: Word Up!

Direction/s: Arrange the jumbled letters to reveal the hidden words related to our lesson. Write your
answer in the boxes provided below. (For your answer, please refer to ANNEX A.)

1. P E N C T O C 2. S U M I S T L U

3. S E P R O N E S
4. V I A H R O B E

5. H E R O T Y 6. P R I C E A C T

7. W E D A R R 8. S H I P E N T N U M

9. G LO W E K E N D 10. P E R C I E X E E N

M-EPP 2 14
 Wow. Very Good You did it. Congratulations for doing a great job. Hurray! Your activity has
something to do with our topic today. Are you ready? Now, let’s start. Enjoy reading! ☺

.☺☺☺

II – ENGAGEMENT IN THE LEARNING CONTENT AND APPROPRIATE

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Introduction

Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning.
Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how
understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.

Learning design should be based on learning theories because:

▪ Theories provide a basis to understand how people learn and a way to explain, describe, analyze
and predict learning. In that sense, a theory helps us make more informed decisions around the
design, development and delivery of learning.

▪ There are different learning theories (behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism, etc.).
These theorists have thought deeply about learning and contemplated and researched it extensively.
Learning designers can leverage this knowledge to think critically about learning and education.

▪ Learning theories offer frameworks that help understand how information is used, how knowledge is
created and how learning takes place. Learning designers can apply these frameworks according to
different learning and learner needs and make more informed decisions about choosing the right
instructional practices.

There is no one ‘best’ learning theory because:

▪ Each theory offers a different way to look at learning and the essential ingredients that make
learning happen. Using these theories as lenses, learning designers can understand and describe
the role of the learner, role of the instructor/teacher/facilitator and how learning happens in different
ways. Each theory has influenced and shaped instructional practices and methods and all new
theories will continue to do so.

▪ Different theories provide the context of learning, underlying motivation and methods of teaching
and these have implications for designing and delivering instruction. Also, different theories are
best suited to different learning outcomes and different audience profiles.
M-EPP 2 15
 ▪ Since each theory comprises of facts and assumptions, learning designers must begin the design
of training by first identifying the goal of training and then select the right theoretical framework that
can help achieve those learning outcomes.

LEARNING THEORIES

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to

environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped
through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast,
punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen
again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus.
Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner.

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring
in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner.

 Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was
measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical
conditioning.

M-EPP 2 16
Pavlov’s Experiment

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing
food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditional response). During
conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning,
the ringing of the bell (Conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is
called Classical Conditioning.

Figure 1. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So at present,
when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical
conditioning.

Pavlov also had the following findings:

▪ Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will
salivate at other similar sounds.

▪ Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to
the bell.

▪ Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but
will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

▪ Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

▪ Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

M-EPP 2 17
 Edward L. Thorndike
Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology.
More than a hundred years ago he wrote a textbook entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first
one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result if associations forming between stimuli (S)
and responses (R). Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong connection or
bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:

• Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence to positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the
response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike response is weakened when the
consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that negative rewards
(punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do
not necessarily motivate performance.

• Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the stronger it
will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the
law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.

• Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made
to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch
the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel
frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing so. Likewise,
if the person is not at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying.
For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the question and
expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student.
That is why teachers should remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling
on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (law of effect/exercise).

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
(law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

M-EPP 2 18
 John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially
involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior research. He considered that
humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is
learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He believed in the power of
conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into
anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus- response connections through
conditioning.

Experiment on Albert

Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child and a
white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden noise each time
Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to
fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was
also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat
without the loud noise.

Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today, nevertheless, his work did clearly
show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help
us understand the fears, phobias, and prejudices that people develop.

 Burrhus Frederick Skinner

Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding any
likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian
society based in operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he
pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government,
law, religion, economics and education.

Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to be known
as Operant Conditioning.

Figure 2. Operant Conditioning Chart

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math

M-EPP 2 19
problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

▪ A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An
example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to
children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cellphone for
her son who gets good grades. Still, other examples include verbal phrases, star stamps, and
stickers.

▪ A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it
is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforce is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward. For
instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading
periods will no longer take the final examination, the negative reinforce is “removing” the final
exam, which we realize is a form of reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5

▪ A negative reinforcement is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence

intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is
not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment) and therefore, loses points
for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class
late.

Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are not
likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.

▪ Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a
lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior
are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To
begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for
moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.

▪ Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal
would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a
child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire
process of tying the shoelace is learned

▪ Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement

does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner

M-EPP 2 20
 referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.

▪ Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforce) every 10
minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.

▪ Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that
must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforce) different
intervals, not every ten minutes.

▪ Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement
may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforce) everytime it presses the bar 5 times.

▪ Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies, example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times,
then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it
needs to press the bar before it gets food again.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent
rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they
know that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets even
when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true that very rarely there is a big
winner, but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when the
jackpot can be gotten (variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of response).

Implication of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed instruction.

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose the
student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive
reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise,
prizes and good grades.

Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (“shaping”).

M-EPP 2 21
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”) producing secondary
conditioning.

Constructivism

Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take
in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own
representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).

The constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students actually create their own
learning based on their previous experience. Students take what they are being taught and add it to their
previous knowledge and experiences, creating a unique reality that is just for them. This learning theory
focuses on learning as an active process, personal and unique for each student.

Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will bring their own past to
the classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide to helping students
create their own learning and understanding. They help them create their own process and reality based on
their own past. This is crucial to helping many kinds of students take their own experiences and include
them in their learning.

Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation.

o Assimilation - refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an existing schema.
o Accommodation - refers to using newly acquired information to revise and redevelop an existing
schema.

For example, if I believe that friends are always nice, and meet a new person who is always nice to
me I may call this person a friend, assimilating them into my schema. Perhaps, however, I meet a
different person who sometimes pushes me to try harder and is not always nice. I may decide to
change my schema to accommodate this person by deciding a friend doesn’t always need to be
nice if they have my best interests in mind. Further, this may make me reconsider whether the first
person still fits into my friend schema.

Consequences of Constructivist Theory are that:

• Students learn best when engaged in learning experiences rather passively receiving information.
• Learning is inherently a social process because it is embedded within a social context as students
and teachers work together to build knowledge.
• Because knowledge cannot be directly imparted to students, the goal of teaching is to provide
experiences that facilitate the construction of knowledge.
• This last point is worth repeating. A traditional approach to teaching focuses on delivering
information to students, yet constructivism argues that you cannot directly impart this information.
Only an experience can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge. Therefore, the goal of
teaching is to design these experiences.

M-EPP 2 22
Consequences for the classroom

There are many consequences for teaching and the classroom if you adhere to constructivist
principles. The following chart from the Teaching and Learning Resources wiki compares traditional and
constructivist classrooms across several components.

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

▪ Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning
▪ Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole.
with the whole and expanding to include the
Emphasizes basic skills
parts.
▪ Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly ▪ Pursuit of student questions and interests is
valued. valued.
▪ Materials are primarily textbooks and ▪ Materials include primary sources of material
workbooks. and manipulative materials.
▪ Learning is interactive, building on what the
▪ Learning is based on repetition.
student already knows.
▪ Teachers disseminate information to students. ▪ Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping
Students are recipients of knowledge. students construct their own knowledge.
▪ Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in
▪ Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority.
negotiation.
▪ Assessment includes student works,
▪ Assessment is through testing and correct
observations and points of view, as well as
answers.
tests. Process is as important as product.
▪ Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing
▪ Knowledge is seen as inert.
with our experiences.
▪ Students work primarily alone. ▪ Students work primarily in groups.

Essential Components to Constructivist Teaching

There are several main components to include if you plan on adhering to constructivist principles in
your classroom or when designing your lessons. The following are from Baviskar, Hartle & Whitney (2009):

• Elicit Prior Knowledge

New knowledge is created in relation to learner’s pre-existing knowledge. Lessons, therefore,
require eliciting relevant prior knowledge. Activities include: pre-tests, informal interviews and small
group warm-up activities that require recall of prior knowledge.

• Create Cognitive Dissonance

Assign problems and activities that will challenge students. Knowledge is built as learners
encounter novel problems and revise existing schemas as they work through the challenging
problem.

M-EPP 2 23
 • Apply Knowledge with Feedback
Encourage students to evaluate new information and modify existing knowledge. Activities should
allow for students to compare pre-existing schema to the novel situation. Activities might include
presentations, small group or class discussions, and quizzes.

• Reflect on learning
Provide students with an opportunity to show you (and themselves) what they have learned.
Activities might include: presentations, reflexive papers or creating a step-by-step tutorial for
another student.

Examples of Constructivist Classroom Activities

▪ Reciprocal Teaching/Learning
Allow pairs of students to teach each other.

▪ Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL)

Learners pose their own questions and seek answers to their questions via research and direct
observation. They present their supporting evidence to answer the questions. They draw
connections between their pre-existing knowledge and the knowledge they’ve acquired through the
activity. Finally, they draw conclusions, highlight remaining gaps in knowledge and develop plans
for future investigations.

▪ Problem-Based learning (PBL)

The main idea of PBL is similar to IBL: learners acquire knowledge by devising a solution to a
problem. PBL differs from IBL in that PBL activities provide students with real-world problems that
require students to work together to devise a solution. As the group works through the challenging
real-world problem, learners acquire communication and collaboration skills in addition to
knowledge.

▪ Cooperative Learning
Students work together in small groups to maximize their own and each other's learning.
Cooperative learning differs from typical group work in that it requires interdependence among
group members to solve a problem or complete an assignment.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura postulated social learning theory as one learns with other people in the social
learning environment as one learns with other people in the social environment in which he lives. It is a
theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by

M-EPP 2 24
observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social
context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor
reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs
through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a
particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is
constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in
which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various
internal processes in the learning individual.

Vicarious conditioning is a process of learning by way of sending directly or hearing about the
consequences as a result of other people’s action. A student who has heard a classmate being sent to the
Office of Student Affairs for allegedly being involved in unruly demonstration outside the school campus will
not do the same thing.

▪ Observation Learning - is the process of learning by watching other people’s behavior. Through it, one
can profit

Bandura enumerated various Learning Mechanisms that are essentials in observational learning.

Figure 3. Social Learning Theory

1. Attention: The degree to which we notice the behavior. A behavior must grab our attention before it
can be imitated. Considering the number of behaviors we observe and do not imitate daily indicates
attention is crucial in whether a behavior influences imitation.

2. Retention: How well we remember the behavior. We cannot perform the behavior if we do not
remember the behavior. So, while a behavior may be noticed, unless a memory is formed, the observer
will not perform the behavior. And, because social learning is not immediate, retention is vital to behavior
modeling.

M-EPP 2 25
 3. Motor Reproduction: The ability to perform the behavior. This is the ability to reproduce a behavior we
observe. It influences our decision about whether to try performing the behavior. Even when we wish to
imitate an observed behavior, we are limited by our physical abilities.

4. Motivation: The will to emulate the behavior. This mediational process is referred to as vicarious
reinforcement. It involves learning through observing the consequences of actions for other people, rather
than through direct experience.

Cognitivism

Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn how to maximize
your brain’s potential. It makes it easier for you to connect new information with existing ideas hence
deepening your memory and retention capacity.The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and
retain information through experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition

The cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important
part in understanding how we learn. The cognitive theory understands that learners can be influenced by
both internal and external elements. Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on
cognition and how we as human beings think. Many other researchers looked deeper into the idea of how
we think, spurring more research. Jean Piaget is a highly important figure in the field of cognitive
psychology, and his work focuses on environments and internal structures and how they impact learning.
The cognitive theory has developed over time, breaking off into sub-theories that focus on unique elements
of learning and understanding. At the most basic level, the cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts
and external forces are both an important part of the cognitive process. And as students understand how
their thinking impacts their learning and behavior, they are able to have more control over it. The cognitive
learning theory impacts students because their understanding of their thought process can help them learn.
Teachers can give students opportunities to ask questions, to fail, and think out loud. These strategies can
help students understand how their thought process works, and utilize this knowledge to construct better
learning opportunities.

It also focuses on the processes involved in learning rather than on the observed behavior. As
opposed to Behaviorists, Cognitivists do not require an outward exhibition of learning, but focus more on
the internal processes and connections that take place during learning. Cognitivism contends that “the
black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information
processor. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions and learning is defined as
change in a learner’s schemata. Some important classroom principles from cognitive psychology include
meaningful learning, organization, and elaboration.

Cognitivism as a Reaction against Behaviorism

Cognitivist theory developed as a reaction to Behaviorism. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists

because they felt that behaviorists thought learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the
idea that thinking plays an important role. One of the most famous criticisms addressed to Behaviorism was
Chomsky’s argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at least
M-EPP 2 26
partly explained by the existence of some inner abilities. Behaviorism for example falls short to explain how
children can learn an infinite number of utterance that they have never heard of.

The Role of the Learner

The learners according to cognitivists are active participants in the learning process. They use
various strategies to process and construct their personal understanding of the content to which they are
exposed. Students are not considered anymore as recipients that teachers fill with knowledge, but as active
participants in the learning.

Notable Cognitivists

A few of the cognitivists who have contributed to developing the cognitive theory are the following:

 Piaget
 Bloom
 Bruner
 Ausubel

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as children grow.
A child's cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or construct
a mental model of the world.

Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities and environmental
events, and children pass through a series of stages. Piaget's stages are:

Figure 4. The Four (4) Stages of Cognitive Development

M-EPP 2 27
 The sequence of the stages is universal across cultures and follow the same invariant
(unchanging) order. All children go through the same stages in the same order (but not all at the same
rate).

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought

Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and child development is determined by
biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other stages, that is,
each stage involves a different type of intelligence.

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Age Goal

▪ Sensorimotor ▪ Birth to 18-24 months ▪ Object Permanence
▪ Pre-Operational ▪ 2 to 7 years old ▪ Symbolic Thought
▪ Concrete Operational ▪ Ages 7 to 11 years ▪ Logical Thought
▪ Formal Operational ▪ Adolescence to Adulthood ▪ Scientific Reasoning

1. The Sensorimotor Stage

• The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around
and exploring its environment).
• During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object
permanence; self-recognition; deferred imitation; and representational play.
• They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent
the world mentally
• At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist
even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear.
• During this stage the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental picture of the world
stored in its memory therefore it does not have a sense of object permanence.
• If it cannot see something then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant,
while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.
• The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists,
even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the
object.
• Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show
in their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language starts to appear because
they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings.
• The child begins to be able to store information that it knows about the world, recall it and label it.

M-EPP 2 28
2. The Pre-operational Stage

• Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language
and mental imagery.
• During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make
one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
• A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of
logical (problem solving) type of thought.
• Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-
living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.
• By 2 years, children have made some progress towards detaching their thought from physical
world. However have not yet developed logical (or 'operational') thought characteristic of later
stages.
• Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgements about situations) and egocentric (centred
on the child's own view of the world).

3. The Concrete Operational Stage

• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may
change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine returning to
its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people
might think and feel.
• The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they
can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.
• Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development
because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work
things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).
• Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the
understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.
• But operational thought only effective here if child asked to reason about materials that are
physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when
asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

4. The Formal Operational Stage

• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas.
Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about
slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).

M-EPP 2 29
 • They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What
would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many
possible consequences.
• From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its
content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically
test hypotheses.
• This stage sees emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses
when faced with a problem.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Development

Figure 5. Bloom’s Taxonomy

The most widely used theories of cognitivism in education are based on Benjamin Bloom’s
Taxonomy of learning objectives, , which are related to the development of different kinds of learning skills ,
or ways of learning. Bloom and his colleagues claimed that there are three important domains of learning:

1. Cognitive: Skills in the Cognitive domain revolve around knowledge, comprehension and critical thinking
on a particular subject. In traditional forms of education, classrooms or online learning, the emphasis is
more on the skills in this domain, particularly the lower-order objectives.

.2. Affective: Skills in the Affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and involve learning
that happens at the behavioural level. Affective objectives aim to increase the awareness and improve
attitudes, emotions and feelings.

M-EPP 2 30
3. Psychomotor: The Psychomotor domain deals with skill-based learning. Skills involve the capability to
bodily manipulate tools or instruments similar to a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus
on change or development in behaviour and skills.

The Cognitive Domain

This domain on the acquisition and use of knowledge is predominant in the majority of courses.
Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and intellectual skills including:

• comprehending information and the recall or recognition of specific facts;

• organizing ideas and procedural patterns;
• analysing and synthesizing data;
• applying knowledge;
• choosing among alternatives in problem-solving;
• evaluating ideas or actions.

Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of
facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest
order which is classified as evaluation. A description of the six levels as well as verb examples that
represent intellectual activity are listed here.

Level 1: Knowledge
➢ is defined as remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide
range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to
mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in
the cognitive domain.

Verbs: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall,
repeat, reproduce state.

Level 2: Comprehension
➢ is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating
material from one form to another (words to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or
summarizing), and by estimating furture trends (predicting consequences or effects). These
learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the
lowest level of understanding.

Verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report,
restate, review, select, translate.

M-EPP 2 31
Level 3: Application
➢ refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the
application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Learning
outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension.

Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice,
schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.

Level 4: Analysis
➢ refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational
structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the
relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles involved. Learning
outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and application becasue
they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the material.

Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate,

discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.

Level 5: Synthesis
➢ refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a
unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of
abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area stress
creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or structures.

Verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate,
manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.

Level 6: Evaluation
➢ is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research
report) for a given purpose. The judgments are to be based on definite criteria. These may be
internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may
determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive
hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value
judgments based on clearly defined criteria.

Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate,
core, select, support, value, evaluate.

M-EPP 2 32
Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)

Cognitive learning theories, Jerome Bruner based the spiral curriculum on his idea that “'We begin
with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child
at any stage of development.”

In other words, he meant that even every comlwx topics can be taught to young children if
structured and presented in the right way. The spiral curriculum is based on three key ideas.

1. Students revisit the same topic multiple times throughout their school career. This reinforces the learning
each time they return to the subject.

2. The complexity of the topic increases each time a students revisits it. This allows progression through
the subject matter as the child’s cognitive ability develops with age.

3. When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are linked with ones they have previously learned. The
student’s familiarity with the keywords and ideas enables to grasp the more difficult elements of the topic in
a stronger way.

Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1996)

Following the ida of the spiral curriculum, Bruner presented the idea of three modes of
representation. These mode of representation refeto the way knowledge restored in memory. Unlike
Piaget’s age related stages, Bruner’s modes are loosely sequential.

1. Enactive (Age 0-1 year) – Representaion of knowledge through physical actions.

2. Iconic (Age 1-6 years) – Visual representation of knowledge stored via visual images.
3. Symblic (Age 7+ years) – The use of words and symbols to describe experiences.

Figure 6. Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum

M-EPP 2 33
Ausubel's Learning Theory

David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist whose most significant contribution to the
fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education. Ausubel believed that
understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he
believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The most important single
factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. This led Ausubel to develop an interesting
theory of meaningful learning and advance organizers.

Ausubel's believes that learning of new knowledge relies on what is already known. That is,
construction of knowledge begins with our observation and recognition of events and objects through
concepts we already have. We learn by constructing a network of concepts and adding to them.

Ausubel also stresses the importance of reception rather than discovery learning, and meaningful
rather than rote learning. He declares that his theory applies only to reception learning in school settings.
He didn’t say, however, that discovery learning doesn’t work; but rather that it was not efficient. In other
words, Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through
deductive reasoning Ausubel was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget’s ideas of
conceptual schemes, Ausubel related this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge.

Meaningful Learning

Ausebel’s theory also focuses on meaningful learning. According to his theory, to learn
meaningfully, individuals must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know. New
knowledge must interact with the learner’s knowledge structure.

Meaningful learning can be contrasted with rote learning. he believed in the idea of meaningful
learning as opposed to rote memorization. The latter can also incorporate new information into the pre-
existing knowledge structure but without interaction. Rote memory is used to recall sequences of objects,
such as phone numbers. However, it is of no use to the learner in understanding the relationships between
the objects.

Because meaningful learning involves a recognition of the links between concepts, it has the
privilege of being transferred to long-term memory. The most crucial element in meaningful learning is how
the new information is integrated into the old knowledge structure. Accordingly, Ausubel believes that
knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extend that it can be
related (attached, anchored) to what is already known.

M-EPP 2 34
 .

Figure 7. The Rote-Meaningful Learning Continium Showing the

Requirements of Meaningful Learning

Advance Organizers

Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a mechanism to help to link new learning
material with existing related ideas. Advance organizers are helpful in the way that they help the process of
learning when difficult and complex material are introduced. This is satisfied through two conditions:

1. The student must process and understand the information presented in the organizer-- this increases the
effectiveness of the organizer itself.

2.The organizer must indicate the relations among the basic concepts and terms that will be used
Ausubel’s theory of advance organizers fall into two categories: comparative and expository

Comparative Organizers

The main goal of comparative organizers is to activate existing schemas and is used as reminders
to bring into the working memory of what you may not realize is relevant. A comparative Organizer is also
used both to integrate as well as discriminate. It “integrates new ideas with basically similar concepts in
cognitive structure, as well as increase discriminability between new and existing ideas which are
essentially different but confusably similar”

M-EPP 2 35
Expository Organizers

“In contrast, expository organizers provide new knowledge that students will need to understand
the upcoming information”. Expository organizers are often used when the new learning material is
unfamiliar to the learner. They often relate what the learner already knows with the new and unfamiliar
material—this in turn is aimed to make the unfamiliar material more plausible to the learner.

Ausubel Learning Model

Ausubel believed that learning proceeds in a top-down or deductive manner. Ausubel's theory
consists of of three phases. The main elements of ausubel teaching method are shown below in the table.

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

▪ Advance Organizer ▪ Presentation of Learning task ▪ Strengthening Cognitive
or Material ▪ Organization
▪ Clarify aim of the lesson ▪ Make the organization of the ▪ Relate new information
new material explicit ▪ to advance organizer
▪ Present the lesson ▪ Make logical order of learning ▪ Promote active reception
material explicit ▪ learning.
▪ Relate organizer to students’ ▪ Present material in terms of ▪
prior knowledge basic similarities and
differences by using
▪ examples, and engage
students in meaningful
learning activities

Experientialism

Learning by doing. This is the basis for the experiential learning theory. Experiential learning
focuses on the idea that the best ways to learn things is by actually having experiences. Those experiences
then stick out in your mind and help you retain information and remember facts. For teachers, creating
opportunities for students to have experiences based on the things they are learning about is key. Teachers
can help create environments where students can learn and have experiences at the same time.

Experiential learning theory differs from cognitive and behavioral theories in that cognitive theories
emphasize the role of mental processes while behavioral theories ignore the possible role of subjective
experience in the learning process. The experiential theory proposed by David Kolb takes a more holistic
approach and emphasizes how experiences, including cognition, environmental factors, and emotions,
influence the learning process.

“LEARNING IS THE PROCESS WHEREBY KNOWLEDGE IS CREATED THROUGH THE

TRANSFORMATION OF EXPERIENCE”

M-EPP 2 36
The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in
which the learner 'touches all the bases'. Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the next
stage. Learning is achieved only if all four stages have been completed, however, a learner may travel
around the cycle multiple times, further refining their understanding of the topic. No one stage is an
effective learning strategy on its own, for example, if the reflective observation stage is skipped, the learner
could continue to make the same mistakes.

1. Concrete Experience - a new experience or situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of

existing experience.

2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience - of particular importance are any

inconsistencies between experience and understanding.

3. Abstract Conceptualization - reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing

abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).

4. Active Experimentation - the learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to see what
happens.

Figure 8. Kolb’s Experiencial Learning Cycle

M-EPP 2 37
 Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a
concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the
formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test
a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Learning Styles

Kolb's learning theory (1984) sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a four-stage
learning cycle (see above). Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different
learning style.

1. Diverging: The diverging learning style is full of learners who look at things with a unique perspective.
They want to watch instead of do, and they also have a strong capacity to imagine. These learners usually
prefer to work in groups, have broad interests in cultures and people, and more. They usually focus on
concrete learning and reflective observation, wanting to observe and see the situation before diving in.

2. Assimilating: This learning style involves learners getting clear information. These learners prefer
concepts and abstracts to people, and explore using analytic models. These learners focus on abstract
conceptualization and reflective observation in the experiential learning style.

3. Converging: Converging learners solve problems. They apply what they’ve learned to practical issues,
and prefer technical tasks. They are also known to experiment with new ideas, and their learning focuses
on abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.

4. Accommodating: These learners prefer practicality. They enjoy new challenges and use intuition to
help solve problems. These learners utilize concrete learning and active experimentation when they learn.

Figure 9. Kolb’s Learning Style Cycle

M-EPP 2 38
 Benefits of Experiential Learning

There are many benefits of experiential learning for teachers and students, including:

▪ Opportunity to Immediately Apply Knowledge: Experiential learning can allow students to

immediately apply things they are learning to real-world experiences. This helps them retain the
information better
.
▪ Promotion of Teamwork: Experiential learning often involves working in a team, so learning in
this setting allows students to practice teamwork.

▪ Improved Motivation: Students are more motivated and excited about learning in experiential
settings. Experiments are exciting and fun for students, and they will be passionate about learning.

▪ Opportunity for Reflection: Students using the experiential model are able to spend time
reflecting about what they are experiencing and learning. This is valuable as they are able to better
retain information when they can think about what’s happening to them.

▪ Real World Practice: Students can greatly benefit from learning that helps them prepare for the
real world. Experiential learning is focused on using real situations to help students learn, so they
are then better prepared for their future.

Job well done! This is the end of our lesson for the chapter 2. I hope you enjoyed our
lesson, and learned something from it. But wait, there’s still more…

III– REFLECTION AND RESPONSE/ACTION

Activity 3: SUMMARY CHART

Direction/s: Summarize the five (5) learning theories and their impacts to EPP teaching using the table
below: (Please refer to Annex B to answer the activity indicated at the end of the lesson.)

Learning
Behaviorism Constructivism Social Learning Cognitivism Experientialism
Theories

Knowledge is:
Focus of learning
is on:
Key learning
concept:
EPP teaching
impact/s:

M-EPP 2 39
 Let’s do this task! ☺ Challenge yourself without looking at your notes.

“CHEATING IS EASY… TRY SOMETHING MORE CHALLENGING…

LIKE BEING FAITHFUL AND HONEST.” ☺ ☺ ☺

IV – SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

I – MATCHING TYPE
Direction/s: Match each of the following classroom activities with the appropriate theory given below. Write
only the letter of the answer on the space provided before the number.(Please refer to ANNEX C to answer
the assessment indicated at the end of the module).

A. Behaviorism C. Social Learning E. Experientialism

B. Constructivism D. Cognitivism

___________1. The pupils are ready to explore and understand on how ideas are connected.
___________2. The teachers can use positive role models to increase desired behaviors.
___________3. The teachers ask their students to justify and explain their thinking.
___________4. The teachers reward their class or certain students with a special treat at the end of the
week for good behavior throughout the week.
___________5. The pupils will perform hands-on activity by making any product in Home Economics.
___________6.The teachers have a dialogue with the learners to help them to construct their own
knowledge.
___________7. A pupil learns not to cheat by watching another pupil being punished for cheating.
___________8. The teachers facilitating the transfer of knowledge to the real world.
___________9. The learners are actively involved in their learning to reach new understandings.
___________10. With each round of feedback, the pupils is being conditioned to learn the material.
II – IDENTIFICATION
Direction/s: Read and identify the statements below. Write your answer on the space provided. (Please
refer to ANNEX C to answer the assessment indicated at the end of the module).

___________1. It also focuses on the processes involved in learning rather than on the observed behavior.
___________2. It refers to the process of taking new information and fitting it into an existing schema
___________3. It is the process of learning by watching other people’s behavior.
___________4. He is considered as the father of social learning theory.
___________5 It is based on the idea that students actually create their own learning based on their
previous experience.
___________6. He suggests that intelligence changes as children grow.
___________7. He believes that learning of new knowledge relies on what is already known.
___________8. It involves a recognition of the links between concepts.
___________9. This learning theory differs from cognitive and behavioral theories.
___________10. The learner applies their ideas to the world around them to see what hap

M-EPP 2 40
 V - FEEDBACK

CONGRATULATIONS! You are done with Module 2. Your responses to the following
statements are essential towards improving the content of this module so that we can serve
your needs better. Kindly answer the following statements with honesty. Rest assured that
your responses will be treated with strict confidentiality.

Direction/s: Put a check [✓] and rate each statement honestly based on what have you learned and how
well have you understood the lesson in this module using the following scales.

SA – Strongly Agree A – Agree D – Disagree SD – Strongly Disagree

CRITERIA SA A D SD
1. CONTENT
1.1 The module provides succinct information about the topics covered and clear
instruction on its assessment details.
1.2 The module content helps me to understand the subject better.
1.3 The module enhances my skills necessary for my future career undertakings.
1.4 The module content is up to date.
1.5 The topics discussed are relevant to my course.
2. TEACHING AND LEARNING
2.1 The subject matter covered on the module is interesting.
2.2 Lessons are explicitly explained in the module.
2.3 The module is intellectually stimulating.
2.4 The teaching methods used in the module facilitate better understanding of
the lessons discussed.
2.5 The quality of teaching reflected in this module is good.
3. MODULE SUPPORT
3.1 The module is well-organized.
3. The learning resources as suggested in the module are helpful to my learning.
3.3 The reading list is helpful.
3.4 The course coach is accessible and available anytime through any available
means of communication.
3.5 The course coach is approachable and helpful to all my module related
concerns.
4. MODULE ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK
4.1 The assessment requirements and marking criteria are clear.
4.2 The assessment task and associated marking criteria are bearable and
manageable.
4.3 The balance between teaching (e.g. lectures, seminars, online) and
independent learning is appropriate.
4.4 The module prepares me thoroughly for the assessment tasks.
4.5 Feedback throughout the module helps me to develop and improve all facets
of my learning process (this may include feedback on formative/summative
assessments, Q&A sessions, tutorials, email communications).
5. OVERALL SATISFACTION
5.1 In general, I am satisfied with the quality of this module.

NOTE: Please refer to ANNEX D indicated at the end ot this module.

M-EPP 2 41