Gas Power Cycles 1

GAS POWER CYCLES

Steam Power Plant: Operates in a cycle; i.e. the working fluid undergoes a series
of processes and finally returns to the initial state.

Internal Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines: The working fluid does not go
through a thermodynamic cycle, even though the engine itself may operate in a
mechanical cycle.

It is advantageous to analyze the performance of an idealized closed cycle similar

to the actual cycle. This should give us some qualitative results.

Gas Power Cycles: The working fluid is always a gas. - Gas turbines and internal
combustion engines of the spark ignition and compression ignition type.

Internal Combustion Engines

1. Spark Ignition -mixture of fuel and air ignited by a park

2. Compression ignition - combustion occurs spontaneously due to high
temperature due to the compression of the gases.
Gas Power Cycles 2

Nicolaus Otto
One of the most important landmarks in engine design comes from Nicolaus Otto who in
1876 invented an effective gas motor engine. Nicolaus Otto built the first practical four-
stroke internal combustion engine called the "Otto Cycle Engine," and when he
completed his engine, he built it into a motorcycle. Nikolaus Otto was born in
Holzhausen was born in 1832. As a young man he began experimenting with gas
engines and in 1864 joined with two friends to form his own company. Five years later
he was joined by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach and together they produced the
idea of the four-stroke cycle. First described in 1876, the stroke is an upward or
downward movement of a piston in a cylinder. In a petrol engine the cycle begins with
the induction of a fuel mixture as the piston goes down on its first stroke. Going up, the
piston compresses the mixture in the top of the cylinder. An electric spark ignites the
mixture, and the gases produced force the piston down on its third, power stroke. On
the fourth stroke the piston expels the burned gases from the cylinder into the exhaust.
Gas Power Cycles 3

Rudolf Diesel (1858 - 1913)

Rudolf Diesel was born in Paris in 1858. His parents were Bavarian
immigrants. Rudolf Diesel was educated at Munich Polytechnic. After
graduation he was employed as a refrigerator engineer. However, he
true love lay in engine design. Rudolf Diesel designed many heat
engines, including a solar-powered air engine. In 1893, he published
a paper describing an engine with combustion within a cylinder, the
internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent for his
new invention, dubbed the diesel engine. Rudolf Diesel was almost
killed by his engine when it exploded. However, his engine was the
first that proved that fuel could be ignited without a spark. He
operated his first successful engine in 1897.
Gas Power Cycles 4
Gas Power Cycles 5

FOUR STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

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Gas Power Cycles 7

FOUR STROKE COMPRESSION IGNITION

Gas Power Cycles 8

TWO STROKE ENGINE

Gas Power Cycles 9

mean effective pressure: the theoretical pressure, that if it acted on the piston
during the power stroke, would produce the same net work as actually developed
in one cycle.

net work for one cycle

mep =
displacement volume

Accurate modelling of reciprocating internal combustion engines normally requires

computer simulations. To conduct elementary thermodynamic analysis (Air-
Standard Analaysis), we make the following assumptions (Air-Standard
Assumptions):
1. A fixed amount of air modeled as an ideal gas is the working fluid.
2. The combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer from an external source.
3. There are no intake and exhaust processes as in an actual engine. The cycle is
completed by a constant-volume heat transfer process taking place while the
piston is at b.d.c.
4. All processes are internally reversible.

These simplifications result in significant departure for the values for the mep and
operating temperatures and pressures from those of an actual engine. Only a
qualitative examination is possible through the air-standard analysis.
Gas Power Cycles 10

Ideal Otto Cycle - Nicholas Otto built a 4-stroke IC engine in 1876

Assumes heat addition occurs instantaneously while the piston is at t.d.c.

a) 1-2: Isentropic compression (as the piston moves from b.d.c to t.d.c)
b) 2-3: Constant volume heat transfer (while the piston is at t.d.c)
c) 3-4: Isentropic expansion (power stroke)
d) 4-1: Constant volume heat transfer (while piston is at b.d.c)

Since all the processes are internally reversible:

Areas on T-s diagram represent heat
Areas on p-v diagram represent work.

On T-s diagram:
Area 2-3-a-b-2 is heat added per unit mass
Area 1-4-a-b-1 is het rejected per unit mass
Enclosed area is net heat added
On p-v diagram:
Area 1-2-1-b-1 is work input per unit mass
Area 3-4-b-a-3 is work output per unit mass
Enclosed area is net work output
Gas Power Cycles 11

Neglecting changes in K.E and P.E changes, and with all work and heat transfer
regarded as positive

𝑊12 𝑊34
= 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ; = 𝑢3 − 𝑢4
𝑚 𝑚
𝑄23 𝑄41
= 𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ; = 𝑢4 − 𝑢1
𝑚 𝑚
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑊34 𝑊12
= − = (𝑢3 − 𝑢4 ) − (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

(𝑢3 − 𝑢4 ) − (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) (𝑢4 − 𝑢1 )

𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = =1−
𝑢3 − 𝑢2 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 )

For constant Cv (COLD-AIR STANDARD ASSUMPTION)

𝑇4
𝐶𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑇1 𝑇1 − 1
𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 =1− =1− ( )
𝐶𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑇2 𝑇3 − 1
𝑇12

For an isentropic process (Ideal Gas)

𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑘−1 𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑘−1 𝐶𝑝
= ( ) ; = ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 =
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑇4 𝑉3 𝐶𝑉

𝑉3 = 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉4 = 𝑉1

𝑉1 𝑉4
Compression ratio: 𝑟= =
𝑉2 𝑉21

𝑇4 𝑇3
Hence =
𝑇1 𝑇2
Gas Power Cycles 12

𝑇1
𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 −
𝑇2

1
𝑂𝑡𝑡𝑜 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1
Thermal efficiency, 

Compression ratio, r
Gas Power Cycles 13

Ideal Diesel Cycle

Heat addition occurs during a constant pressure process that starts with the piston
at t.d.c

a) 1-2: Isentropic compression

b) 2-3: Heat addition at constant pressure; also makes up first part of the power
stroke.
c) 3-4: Isentropic expansion; remainder of the power stroke.
d) 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection.

3
𝑊23
= ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑝2 (𝑣3 − 𝑣2 )
𝑚
2

Closed system energy balance for process 2-3:

𝑚 (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) = 𝑄23 − 𝑊23

Thus
𝑄23
= (𝑢3 − 𝑢2 ) + 𝑝2 (𝑣3 − 𝑣2 )
𝑚
Gas Power Cycles 14

𝑄23
= (𝑢3 + 𝑝3 𝑣3 ) − (𝑢2 + 𝑝2 𝑣2 )
𝑚

𝑄23
= ℎ3 − ℎ2
𝑚

And
𝑄41
= 𝑢4 − 𝑢1
𝑚

Thermal Efficiency
𝑄41
𝑊𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑢4 − 𝑢1
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = =1− 𝑚 =1−
𝑄23 𝑄23 ℎ3 − ℎ2
𝑚

Using Cold Air Standard Assumptions:

𝐶𝑉 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 − =1−
𝐶𝑃 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

Cutoff Ratio (Ratio of cylinder volume after heat addition to volume at end of
compression):
𝑉3
𝑟𝐶 =
𝑉2

Compression Ratio:
𝑉1
𝑟=
𝑉2

𝑉3
𝑝3 = 𝑝2 ; ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇3 = 𝑇 = 𝑟𝐶 𝑇2
𝑉2 2

For isentropic processes 1-2 and 3-4:

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1
= ( ) = 𝑟 𝑘−1
𝑇1 𝑉2
Gas Power Cycles 15

𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑘−1 𝑟𝐶 𝑘−1
= ( ) = ( )
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝑟

Hence:

𝑇4
𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 (𝑇1 − 1)
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 =1− =1−
𝑘 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑇2 𝑘 (𝑇3 − 1)
𝑇2

𝑇
1 (𝑇4 − 1)
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 − 1
𝑟 𝑘−1 𝑘 (𝑟𝐶 − 1)

1 (𝑟𝐶 𝑘 − 1)
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 1 −
𝑟 𝑘−1 𝑘 (𝑟𝐶 − 1)
Gas Power Cycles 16

Air-Standard Dual Cycle

An air-standard cycle that can be made to approximate the pressure variations

more closely to the actual cycle is the dual cycle. Heat addition occurs in two
steps.

a) 1-2: Isentropic compression

b) 2-3: Constant volume heat addition
c) 3-4: Constant pressure heat addition; also first part of the power stroke
d) 4-5: isentropic expansion; remainder of the power stroke.
e) 5-1: Constant volume heat rejection
Gas Power Cycles 17

GAS TURBINES

Power Generation

Land Vehicles

Aircraft Propulsion
Gas Power Cycles 18

GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS

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Air-standard analysis:
1. The working fluid is air which behaves as an ideal gas.
2. The temperature rise that would brought about by combustion is
accomplished by a heat transfer from an external source.

Again, these assumptions mean that the results are only good from a qualitative
point of view.

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

Gas Power Cycles 22

George Brayton
Born in Rhode Island, son of William H. and Minerva (Bailey) Brayton.
He was an American mechanical engineer who lived with his family in
Boston, and who is noted for introducing the continuous combustion
process that is the basis for the gas turbine, and which is now referred to
as the Brayton cycle. In 1872 Brayton patented a two-stroke kerosene
stationary engine known as Brayton's Ready Motor, which had one
cylinder for compression, a combustion chamber, and a separate cylinder
in which the products expanded for the power stroke. It bore a marked
resemblance to a steam engine with its rocking beam and flywheel. His
engine needed no spark plug - it had a continuously burning flame to
ignite each cycle of the engine. He demonstrated that prolonging the
combustion phase of the cycle, by injecting fuel at a controlled rate,
produced more power per unit of fuel consumed. However, much of the
efficiency gained by this method was lost due to the lack of an adequate
method of compressing the fuel mixture prior to ignition.
Gas Power Cycles 23

T-s diagram:
Area 2-3-4-a-b-2 - heat added per unit mass
Area 1-4-a-b-1 - heat rejected per unit mass

p-v diagram
Area 1-2-a-b-1 - compressor work input per unit mass
Area 3-4-b-a-3 - turbine work uotput per unit mass

The enclosed area on each figure can be interpreted as the net work output or,
equivalently, the net heat added.
Gas Power Cycles 24

AIR-STANDARD BRAYTON CYCLE

(2) (3)

(1) (4)

Work & Heat Transfers

𝑊̇𝑡 𝑊̇𝑐
= ℎ3 − ℎ4 ; = ℎ2 − ℎ1 ;
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
= ℎ3 − ℎ2 ; = ℎ4 − ℎ1 ;
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

𝑊̇𝑡 𝑊̇𝑐
−
 = 𝑚 ̇ 𝑚̇
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛
𝑚̇
Gas Power Cycles 25

(ℎ3 − ℎ4 ) − (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
 =
(ℎ3 − ℎ2 )

BACK WORK RATIO, (bwr)

𝑊̇𝑐
(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑏𝑤𝑟 = 𝑚̇ =
𝑊̇𝑡 (ℎ3 − ℎ4 )
𝑚̇

bwr can be anywhere between 40% to 80% compared to 1 or 2% in vapor power

plants. The specific volume of the gas is many times greater than the liquid
passing through the pump.

COLD AIR-STANDARD (Constant specific heats)

𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) − 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

 = =1−
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )

𝑇4
𝑇1 𝑇1 − 1
 =1− ( )
𝑇2 𝑇3 − 1
𝑇2

For isentropic processes 1-2 and 3-4:

𝑘−1 𝑘−1 𝑘−1
𝑝2 𝑘 𝑝4 𝑘 𝑝1 𝑘
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 𝑇3 ( )
𝑝1 𝑝3 𝑝2
Thus

𝑇4 𝑇3
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

And
𝑇1
 =1−
𝑇2
Gas Power Cycles 26

1 1
 =1− 𝑘−1
= 1− 𝑘−1
𝑝 𝑘 (𝑟𝑝 ) 𝑘
(𝑝2 )
1

Where the pressure ratio

𝑝2
𝑟𝑝 ≡
𝑝1
Gas Power Cycles 27
Gas Power Cycles 28

PRINCIPAL IRREVERSIBILITIES AND LOSSES

Isentropic Efficiencies:

(𝑊̇𝑡 /𝑚̇) ℎ 3 − ℎ4
𝑡 = =
(𝑊̇𝑡 /𝑚̇)
𝑠
ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑠

(𝑊̇𝑐 /𝑚̇)𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1

𝑐 = =
(𝑊̇𝑐 /𝑚̇) ℎ2 − ℎ1
December 2022 Final Exams MECHENG 4V03 / 6V03

Page 11 of 12
Gas Power Cycles 29

REGENERATIVE GAS TURBINES

REGENERATOR: Heat Exchanger to preheat the air entering the compressor

using the exhaust from the turbine

In this case
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛
= ℎ3 − ℎ𝑥
𝑚̇

The net work is not changed, and hence the efficiency is increased. The
regenerator efficiency is the ratio of actual enthalpy increase the maximum
enthalpy increase

ℎ𝑥 − ℎ 2
𝑟𝑒𝑔 =
ℎ4 − ℎ 2
Gas Power Cycles 30

Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling

Multistage expansion with reheat and multistage compression with intercooling.

REHEAT
Gas Power Cycles 31

INTERCOOLING
Gas Power Cycles 32
Gas Power Cycles 33

COMBINED GAS TURBINE – VAPOR POWER CYCLES

Gas Power Cycles 34
Gas Power Cycles 35
Gas Power Cycles 36

Comparison of Gas Turbines and Steam Turbines

Gas Turbines: Low Weight/Power Ratios

High Fuel Cost
Portable
Steam Turbines: Many fuel sources - Oil and coal fired boilers
Solar, Nuclear.
Gas Power Cycles 37

Gas Turbines for Propulsion

Must have low weight-to-power ratios.

TURBOJETS: More efficient at higher speeds

TURBOPROPS: Greater thrust at lower speeds

TURBOFANS: Combines the relatively high efficiency and excellent thrust

capabilities of a turboprop with the superior high speed characteristics of a turbojet
– most popular in both military and civilian applications. The fan can contribute 30
to 70 percent of the thrust.

All fall into the category of air-breathing engine. Other propulsion methods
include rockets.
Gas Power Cycles 38
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Gas Power Cycles 41

Thrust (propulsive force)

Propulsive power