1) Explain the working operation of Bi-phase Full wave rectifiers.

Fig. 1.9 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier circuit. Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to
the primary of the step-down transformer (T1) which has two identical secondary
windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or
20:1 for each secondary winding).

On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly, point
B will be positive with respect to point C. In this condition D1 will allow conduction
(its anode will be positive with respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its cathode). Thus D1 alone
conducts on positive half-cycles.

On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly, point
B will be positive with respect to point A. In this condition D2 will allow conduction
(its anode will be positive with respect to its cathode) while D1 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its cathode). Thus D2 alone
conducts on negative half-cycles.

Fig. 1.10 shows the bi-phase rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by switches. In
Fig. 1.10(a) D1 is shown conducting on a positive half-cycle while in Fig. 1.10(b) D2 is
shown conducting. The result is that current is routed through the load in the same
direction on successive half-cycles.
2) Draw the block diagram of the Power supply circuit and list each block.

The main input is at a relatively high voltage, a step-down transformer of

appropriate turns ratio is used to convert this to a low voltage. The a.c. output from
the transformer secondary is then rectified using conventional silicon rectifier
diodes to produce an unsmoothed (sometimes referred to as pulsating d.c.) output.
This is then smoothed and filtered before being applied to a circuit which will
regulate (or stabilize) the output voltage so that it remains relatively constant
despite variations in both load current and incoming mains voltage.

The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a rectifier arrangement (often based

on a bridge circuit). The output of the rectifier is then applied to a high-value
reservoir capacitor. This capacitor stores a considerable amount of charge and is
being constantly topped-up by the rectifier arrangement. The capacitor also helps
to smooth out the voltage pulses produced by the rectifier. Finally, a stabilizing
circuit (often based on a series transistor regulator and a zener diode voltage
reference) provides a constant output voltage.
3) Explain the working operation of Half Wave Rectifier Circuit.

Half-wave rectification is a fundamental process in electronics, particularly in

converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Here's a breakdown of
the working operation of a half-wave rectifier circuit:

AC Input: The half-wave rectifier circuit begins with an AC input signal, typically from
a transformer connected to the mains supply. This AC signal alternates between
positive and negative cycles.
Diode: A diode is the key component of the half-wave rectifier. It allows current to
flow in only one direction, blocking the flow in the opposite direction. In the case of
a half-wave rectifier, the diode conducts only during the positive half-cycle of the
input AC signal.
Half-Wave Rectification: During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode
becomes forward-biased, allowing current to flow through the load resistor
connected in series with the diode. This current charges the load in one direction,
producing a positive half-wave output across the load resistor.
Blocking Negative Half-Cycle: During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, the
diode becomes reverse-biased, blocking the flow of current. As a result, no current
passes through the load resistor during this half-cycle, resulting in a zero output.
Output Signal: The output across the load resistor is the rectified waveform, which
contains only the positive half-cycles of the input AC signal. However, the output
waveform is not a pure DC signal but a pulsating DC signal, with ripple due to the
absence of the negative half-cycles.
Filtering: To reduce the ripple and obtain a smoother DC output, a capacitor can be
connected across the load resistor to filter out the AC components, resulting in a
more stable DC output.
4) Draw the circuit diagram of bridge rectifier and write the advantages of bridge
rectifier over Bi-Phaserectifier.

Bridge rectifiers offer several advantages over bi-phase rectifiers:

Efficiency: Bridge rectifiers are more efficient in converting AC to DC compared to

bi-phase rectifiers. This is because they utilize four diodes instead of two, allowing
for a more complete utilization of the input AC voltage.

Compact Size: Bridge rectifiers are generally more compact than bi-phase rectifiers
since they require fewer components. This makes them suitable for applications
where space is limited.

Simplicity: Bridge rectifiers have a simpler circuit topology compared to bi-phase

rectifiers, which typically require additional components such as center-tapped
transformers or dual diode setups. The simpler design often translates to easier
manufacturing and lower costs.

Higher Output Voltage: Bridge rectifiers can produce a higher output voltage
compared to bi-phase rectifiers for the same input voltage. This is because the full
input voltage is utilized in the rectification process, whereas bi-phase rectifiers
only utilize half of the input voltage.

Better Voltage Regulation: Bridge rectifiers typically offer better voltage regulation
compared to bi-phase rectifiers. This means that the output voltage remains more
stable under varying load conditions.

Scalability: Bridge rectifiers can easily be scaled to handle higher currents and
voltages by using diodes with higher current and voltage ratings. Bi-phase rectifiers
may require more complex arrangements to achieve similar scalability.
5) Draw the diagram of the voltage regulator and write expressions for Rs max
and Rs min.
6) What is an Astable Multivibrator? Draw its neat diagram and write the
expression for VUT and VLT.

Astable multivibrators are the multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses
(these are sometimes also referred to as free-running multivibrators).

VUT = VCC (R2 / (R1+R2) VLT = VCC (R2 / (R1+R2)

7) Explain Voltage doubler with circuit diagram.

By adding a second diode and capacitor, we can increase the output of the simple
half-wave rectifier. A voltage doubler using this technique is shown. In this
arrangement C1 will charge to the positive peak secondary voltage while C2 will
charge to the negative peak secondary voltage. Since the output is taken from C1
and C2 connected in series the resulting output voltage is twice that produced by
one diode alone. The voltage doubler can be extended to produce higher voltages
using the cascade arrangement shown in Fig. 1.20.

Here C1 charges to the positive peak secondary voltage, while C2 and C3 charge to
twice the
positive peak secondary voltage. The result is that the output voltage is the sum of the
voltages across C1 and C3 which is three times the voltage that would be produced by a
single diode.
The ladder arrangement can be easily extended to provide even higher voltages but
the efficiency of the circuit becomes increasingly impaired and high-order voltage
multipliers of this type are only suitable for providing relatively small currents.
8) What is a Multivibrator? Explain about crystal controlled oscillators with a
diagram.

Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms

consisting of one or more rectangular pulses.

A requirement of some oscillators is that they accurately maintain an exact frequency

of oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can be used as the frequency
determining element. The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is
applied across its faces. The frequency of oscillation is determined by the crystal’s
‘cut’ and physical size. Most quartz crystals can be expected to stabilize the
frequency of oscillation of a circuit to within a few parts in a million. Crystals can be
manufactured for operation in fundamental mode over a frequency range extending
from 100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone operation from 20 MHz to well
over 100 MHz.
9) Explain Inverting and Non Inverting OPAMP with circuit diagram.

Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration:In the inverting configuration, the input

signal is applied to the inverting input terminal (-) of the op-amp. The output signal
is inverted compared to the input signal. The gain of the amplifier is determined by
the ratio of the feedback resistor (Rf) to the input resistor (Rin)
Vin: Input Voltage
Vout: Output Voltage
R: Input Resistor
Rf: Feedback Resistor

The voltage gain (Av) of the inverting amplifier is given by:Av = -Rf / RinThe negative
sign indicates that the output is inverted with respect to the input.
Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration:In the non-inverting configuration,
the input signal is applied to the non-inverting input terminal (+) of the op-amp. The
output signal is in phase with the input signal. The gain of the amplifier is
determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor (Rf) to the resistor connected
between the inverting input terminal and ground (Rin).

10) Write the ideal and practical values for different OPAMP characteristics.

Ideal Characteristics:
Infinite Open-Loop Gain (AOL): The op-amp should ideally have infinite gain, meaning it
can amplify the input signal to any required level.
Infinite Input Impedance: The input impedance of the op-amp should be infinite so
that it does not load the preceding stage.
Zero Output Impedance: The output impedance of the op-amp should be zero, ensuring
that it can drive any load without affecting the output voltage.
Infinite Bandwidth: The op-amp should ideally have infinite bandwidth, meaning it can
amplify signals of any frequency without distortion.
Zero Offset Voltage and Bias Current: The ideal op-amp would have zero offset
voltage and bias current, ensuring perfect accuracy in amplification.
Infinite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio): It should ideally reject any
common-mode signals perfectly, amplifying only the differential input signal
Infinite Slew Rate: The op-amp should have an infinitely fast slew rate to respond
instantly to changes in the input signal.

Practical Characteristics:
High Gain: While not infinite, practical op-amps have very high gain, typically in the
range of 10^3 to 10^6.
High Input Impedance: While not infinite, practical op-amps have very high input
impedance, typically in the range of Megaohms to Gigaohms.
Low Output Impedance: Although not zero, practical op-amps have low output
impedance, typically in the range of Ohms to tens of Ohms.
Limited Bandwidth: Practical op-amps have limited bandwidth, typically specified in the
datasheet, and it varies based on the specific op-amp model.
Offset Voltage and Bias Current: Practical op-amps have some offset voltage and bias
current, which can vary between different models and manufacturers.
CMRR: Practical op-amps have a finite CMRR, although it's typically very high, often in
the range of 80 dB to 120 dB.
Slew Rate: Practical op-amps have a finite slew rate, typically in the range of volts per
microsecond (V/μs), which determines how fast the output voltage can change in
response to a change in the input voltage

11) Draw the block diagram of Positive feedback circuit and write its value in
terms of overall gain.

The closed loop gain of positive feedback is given by,

12) Describe Voltage follower circuit with circuit diagram.

A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.15 This circuit is
essentially an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back to the
input. The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high
input resistance and a very high output resistance. This stage is often referred to
as a buffer and is used for matching a high- impedance circuit to a low-impedance

circuit.

13) Describe Integrator operational amplifier circuit with its expression for output
voltage.

An integrator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.19. This circuit provides
the opposite function to that of a differentiator in that its output is equivalent to
the area under the graph of the input function rather than its rate of change. If
the input voltage remains constant (and is other than 0 V) the output voltage will
ramp up or down according to the polarity of the input. The longer the input voltage
remains at a particular value the larger the value of output voltage (of either
polarity) will be produced.
14) Describe the Differentiator operational amplifier circuit with its expression
for output voltage.

A differentiator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.17. A differentiator

produces an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of its input. This
may sound a little complex but it simply means that if the input voltage remains
constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the output also remains constant. The faster the
input voltage changes the greater the output will be. In mathematics this is
equivalent to the differential function.
15) Explain the different types of Amplifiers.

1. a.c. coupled amplifiers

In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that d.c. levels are
isolated and only the a.c. components of a signal are transferred from stage to
stage.

2. d.c. coupled amplifiers

In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that
stages are not isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and d.c. signal components are
transferred from stage to stage.

3. Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage and/or current
levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).

4. Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals (normally less than 1
V and often much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to
combat the effects of noise.

5. Audio frequency amplifiers

Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally
associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

6. Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies,
typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.

7. Radio frequency amplifiers

Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally
associated with radio.

8. Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise (signal
disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for
use with very small signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).
16) Explain the working of an Astable Multivibrator with a diagram.

The astable multivibrator circuit consists of two transistors (usually configured as

amplifiers) connected in a regenerative feedback loop. The circuit continuously
alternates between its two stable states, causing the output to oscillate.
Initially, one transistor is in the ON state (saturated) while the other is in the OFF
state (cut-off). The capacitor connected to each transistor acts as a coupling
element, providing the necessary feedback to sustain oscillations.
As the ON transistor conducts, its collector voltage decreases, causing the capacitor
connected to it to charge through the base-emitter junction of the OFF transistor.
This charging process causes the OFF transistor to gradually turn ON.
Once the OFF transistor conducts, its collector voltage decreases, causing the
capacitor connected to it to charge through the base-emitter junction of the ON
transistor. This charging process causes the ON transistor to gradually turn OFF.
This continuous switching of states between the transistors results in a square wave
output at the output terminal.
17) Design a band limiting circuit by using OPAMP and write the expression for FL
and FH.

To design a band-limiting circuit using an operational amplifier (op-amp), we can use a

combination of resistors and capacitors. One common configuration for a band-pass
filter is the Multiple Feedback Band Pass Filter topology, which offers good
performance in terms of bandwidth and selectivity.Here's the circuit diagram for a
Multiple Feedback Band Pass Filter:

R1 R3
Vin -----/\/\/\----+-----/\/\/\--------+--------- Vout
| |
| C2 |
+--||---||---||----+
| |
R2 R4
| |
| |
GND GND
Components:
Vin: Input Voltage
Vout: Output Voltage
R1, R2: Input Resistor
R3, R4: Feedback Resistor
C2: Capacitor
The expression for the lower cutoff frequency (FL) and higher cutoff frequency (FH)
of the band-pass filter can be derived as follows:
Lower Cutoff Frequency (FL):FL = 1 / (2 * π * R2 * C2)This frequency determines the
lower boundary of the passband and corresponds to the point where the gain of the
filter drops to -3 dB.
Higher Cutoff Frequency (FH):FH = 1 / (2 * π * R3 * C2)This frequency determines the
upper boundary of the passband and corresponds to the point where the gain of the
filter drops to -3 dB.
The bandwidth (BW) of the band-pass filter is given by:
BW = FH - FL
The selection of resistor and capacitor values for R1, R2, R3, and C2 will determine the
specific frequency range and bandwidth of the band-pass filter according to the
application requirements.