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APC Textbook CH 3

This document covers exponential and logarithmic functions, including their definitions, properties, graphs, and applications in real-life scenarios. It emphasizes the characteristics of exponential functions, such as their continuous nature, one-to-one property, and the importance of transformations in graphing. The content also includes examples and exercises to reinforce understanding of these mathematical concepts.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

17 views61 pages

APC Textbook CH 3

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cjang0523

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3 Exponential and

Logarithmic Functions

3.1 Exponential Functions and Their Graphs

3.2 Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs
3.3 Properties of Logarithms
3.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
3.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Models

Trees per Acre (Exercise 83, page 236)

Earthquakes
(Example 6, page 244)

Sound Intensity (Exercises 85–88, page 226)

Human Memory Model

(Exercise 81, page 220)

Nuclear Reactor Accident (Example 9, page 207)

199
Clockwise from top left, James Marshall/CORBIS; Darrenp/Shutterstock.com;
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Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
200 Chapter 3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

3.1 Exponential Functions and Their Graphs

Recognize and evaluate exponential functions with base a.
Graph exponential functions and use the One-to-One Property.
Recognize, evaluate, and graph exponential functions with base e.
Use exponential functions to model and solve real-life problems.

Exponential Functions
So far, this text has dealt mainly with algebraic functions, which include polynomial
functions and rational functions. In this chapter, you will study two types of nonalgebraic
functions—exponential functions and logarithmic functions. These functions are examples
of transcendental functions.

Exponential functions can help Definition of Exponential Function

you model and solve real-life The exponential function f with base a is denoted by
problems. For instance,
Exercise 72 on page 210 uses f "x# ! a x
an exponential function to model where a > 0, a $ 1, and x is any real number.
the concentration of a drug in
the bloodstream.
The base a ! 1 is excluded because it yields f "x# ! 1x ! 1. This is a constant function,
not an exponential function.
You have evaluated a x for integer and rational values of x. For example, you know
that 43 ! 64 and 41&2 ! 2. However, to evaluate 4x for any real number x, you need to
interpret forms with irrational exponents. For the purposes of this text, it is sufficient
to think of a!2 (where !2 ' 1.41421356) as the number that has the successively
closer approximations
a1.4, a1.41, a1.414, a1.4142, a1.41421, . . . .

Evaluating Exponential Functions

Use a calculator to evaluate each function at the indicated value of x.
Function Value
a. f "x# ! 2 x x ! "3.1
b. f "x# ! 2"x x!#
c. f "x# ! 0.6x x ! 32
Solution
Function Value Graphing Calculator Keystrokes Display
a. f ""3.1# ! 2"3.1 2 %"$ 3.1 ENTER 0.1166291
b. f "## ! 2"# 2 %"$ # ENTER 0.1133147
c. f "2 # ! "0.6#3&2
3 %
.6 3 ! 2 $ ENTER 0.4647580

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use a calculator to evaluate f "x# ! 8"x at x ! !2.

When evaluating exponential functions with a calculator, remember to enclose

fractional exponents in parentheses. Because the calculator follows the order of operations,
parentheses are crucial in order to obtain the correct result.
Sura Nualpradid/Shutterstock.com

Graphs of Exponential Functions

The graphs of all exponential functions have similar characteristics, as shown in
Examples 2, 3, and 5.

Graphs of y # a x

ALGEBRA HELP You can In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of each function.
review the techniques for a. f "x# ! 2x
sketching the graph of an
equation in Section 1.2. b. g"x# ! 4x
Solution The following table lists some values for each function, and Figure 3.1
shows the graphs of the two functions. Note that both graphs are increasing. Moreover,
the graph of g"x# ! 4x is increasing more rapidly than the graph of f "x# ! 2x.
y g(x) = 4 x
16
x "3 "2 "1 0 1 2
14
1 1 1
12 2x 8 4 2 1 2 4
10 1 1 1
4x 64 16 4 1 4 16
8
6
Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.
4
2 f(x) = 2 x In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of each function.
x
− 4 −3 − 2 −1 1 2 3 4 a. f "x# ! 3x b. g"x# ! 9x
−2

Figure 3.1
The table in Example 2 was evaluated by hand. You could, of course, use a graphing
utility to construct tables with even more values.

Graphs of y # a"x

G(x) = 4 −x y
In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of each function.

16
a. F"x# ! 2"x
14 b. G"x# ! 4"x
12
Solution The following table lists some values for each function, and Figure 3.2
10
shows the graphs of the two functions. Note that both graphs are decreasing. Moreover,
8
the graph of G"x# ! 4"x is decreasing more rapidly than the graph of F"x# ! 2"x.
6
4
F(x) = 2 −x x "2 "1 0 1 2 3
x 1 1 1
− 4 −3 − 2 − 1 1 2 3 4
2"x 4 2 1 2 4 8
−2
1 1 1
4"x 16 4 1 4 16 64
Figure 3.2
Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of each function.

a. f "x# ! 3"x b. g"x# ! 9"x

Note that it is possible to use one of the properties of exponents to rewrite the
functions in Example 3 with positive exponents, as follows.

() ()
1 1 x 1 1 x
F "x# ! 2"x ! x
! and G"x# ! 4"x ! x
!
2 2 4 4

Comparing the functions in Examples 2 and 3, observe that

F"x# ! 2"x ! f ""x# and G"x# ! 4"x ! g""x#.
Consequently, the graph of F is a reflection (in the y-axis) of the graph of f. The graphs
of G and g have the same relationship. The graphs in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 are typical of
the exponential functions y ! a x and y ! a"x. They have one y-intercept and one
horizontal asymptote (the x-axis), and they are continuous. The following summarizes
the basic characteristics of these exponential functions.

y Graph of y ! a x, a > 1
• Domain: "" &, &#
• Range: "0, &#
• y-intercept: "0, 1#
y = ax • Increasing
(0, 1) • x-axis is a horizontal asymptote
REMARK Notice that the "ax → 0 as x→" &#.
x
range of an exponential function • Continuous
is "0, &#, which means that
a x > 0 for all values of x.
y Graph of y ! a"x, a > 1
• Domain: "" &, &#
• Range: "0, &#
• y-intercept: "0, 1#
y = a −x • Decreasing
(0, 1) • x-axis is a horizontal asymptote
"a"x → 0 as x→ &#.
x
• Continuous

Notice that the graph of an exponential function is always increasing or always

decreasing. As a result, the graphs pass the Horizontal Line Test, and therefore the
functions are one-to-one functions. You can use the following One-to-One Property to
solve simple exponential equations.
For a > 0 and a $ 1, ax ! ay if and only if x ! y. One-to-One Property

Using the One-to-One Property

a. 9 ! 3x%1 Original equation

32 ! 3x%1 9 ! 32

2!x%1 One-to-One Property

1!x Solve for x.

b. "2 #
1 x
!8 Original equation

"12 #
x
2"x ! 23 ! 2"x, 8 ! 23

x ! "3 One-to-One Property

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use the One-to-One Property to solve the equation for x.

a. 8 ! 22x"1 b. "13 #"x ! 27

In the following example, notice how the graph of y ! a x can be used to sketch the
graphs of functions of the form f "x# ! b ± a x%c.

ALGEBRA HELP You can Transformations of Graphs of Exponential Functions

review the techniques for
transforming the graph of a Each of the following graphs is a transformation of the graph of f "x# ! 3x.
function in Section 1.7.
a. Because g"x# ! 3x%1 ! f "x % 1#, the graph of g can be obtained by shifting the
graph of f one unit to the left, as shown in Figure 3.3.
b. Because h"x# ! 3x " 2 ! f "x# " 2, the graph of h can be obtained by shifting the
graph of f down two units, as shown in Figure 3.4.
c. Because k"x# ! "3x ! "f "x#, the graph of k can be obtained by reflecting the graph
of f in the x-axis, as shown in Figure 3.5.
d. Because j "x# ! 3"x ! f ""x#, the graph of j can be obtained by reflecting the graph
of f in the y-axis, as shown in Figure 3.6.

y y

3 2
f(x) = 3 x
g(x) = 3 x + 1
1
2
x
−2 −1 1 2
1
f(x) = 3 x −1
h(x) = 3 x − 2
x
−2
−2 −1 1

Figure 3.3 Horizontal shift Figure 3.4 Vertical shift

y y

2 4

1 f(x) = 3x 3

x 2
−2 1 2
j(x) = 3 −x f(x) = 3x
−1 k(x) = −3x 1

−2 x
−2 −1 1 2

Figure 3.5 Reflection in x-axis Figure 3.6 Reflection in y-axis

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use the graph of f "x# ! 4x to describe the transformation that yields the graph of each
function.
a. g"x# ! 4x"2 b. h"x# ! 4x % 3 c. k"x# ! 4"x " 3

Notice that the transformations in Figures 3.3, 3.5, and 3.6 keep the x-axis as a
horizontal asymptote, but the transformation in Figure 3.4 yields a new horizontal
asymptote of y ! "2. Also, be sure to note how each transformation affects the y-intercept.

The Natural Base e

y In many applications, the most convenient choice for a base is the irrational number
e ' 2.718281828 . . . .
3
(1, e)
This number is called the natural base. The function f "x# ! e x is called the natural
exponential function. Figure 3.7 shows its graph. Be sure you see that for the exponential
2
function f "x# ! e x, e is the constant 2.718281828 . . . , whereas x is the variable.
f(x) = e x
(−1, e −1 ) (0, 1)
Evaluating the Natural Exponential Function
(− 2, e −2 ) Use a calculator to evaluate the function f "x# ! e x at each value of x.
x
−2 −1 1 a. x ! "2

Figure 3.7 b. x ! "1

c. x ! 0.25
d. x ! "0.3
Solution
Function Value Graphing Calculator Keystrokes Display
a. f ""2# ! e"2 e %"$ 2 ENTER
x
0.1353353
b. f ""1# ! e"1 ex %"$ 1 ENTER 0.3678794
c. f "0.25# ! e0.25 ex 0.25 ENTER 1.2840254
d. f ""0.3# ! e"0.3 e x
%"$ 0.3 ENTER 0.7408182

y Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

8 Use a calculator to evaluate the function f "x# ! ex at each value of x.

7 f(x) = 2e 0.24x a. x ! 0.3
6
b. x ! "1.2
5
4 c. x ! 6.2
3
Graphing Natural Exponential Functions
1
Sketch the graph of each natural exponential function.
x
− 4 −3 − 2 − 1 1 2 3 4
a. f "x# ! 2e0.24x
Figure 3.8
b. g"x# ! 12e"0.58x

y Solution To sketch these two graphs, use a graphing utility to construct a table of
values, as follows. After constructing the table, plot the points and connect them with
8 smooth curves, as shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.9. Note that the graph in Figure 3.8 is
7 increasing, whereas the graph in Figure 3.9 is decreasing.
6
5
x "3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3
4
3 f "x# 0.974 1.238 1.573 2.000 2.542 3.232 4.109
g(x) = 12 e −0.58x
2 g"x# 2.849 1.595 0.893 0.500 0.280 0.157 0.088
1
x Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.
−4 − 3 − 2 −1 1 2 3 4

Figure 3.9 Sketch the graph of f "x# ! 5e0.17x.

Applications
One of the most familiar examples of exponential growth is an investment earning
continuously compounded interest. The formula for interest compounded n times per
year is

( ).
r nt
A!P 1%
n
In this formula, A is the balance in the account, P is the principal (or original deposit),
r is the annual interest rate (in decimal form), n is the number of compoundings per
year, and t is the time in years. Using exponential functions, you can develop this
formula and show how it leads to continuous compounding.
Suppose you invest a principal P at an annual interest rate r, compounded once
per year. If the interest is added to the principal at the end of the year, then the new
balance P1 is
P1 ! P % Pr
! P"1 % r#.
This pattern of multiplying the previous principal by 1 % r repeats each successive
year, as follows.
Year Balance After Each Compounding
0 P!P
1 P1 ! P"1 % r#
2 P2 ! P1"1 % r# ! P"1 % r#"1 % r# ! P"1 % r#2
3 P3 ! P2"1 % r# ! P"1 % r#2"1 % r# ! P"1 % r#3
.. ..
. .
t Pt ! P"1 % r#t
To accommodate more frequent (quarterly, monthly, or daily) compounding of
interest, let n be the number of compoundings per year and let t be the number of years.
Then the rate per compounding is r&n and the account balance after t years is

( ).
r nt
A!P 1% Amount (balance) with n compoundings per year
n
When you let the number of compoundings n increase without bound, the process
approaches what is called continuous compounding. In the formula for n compoundings
per year, let m ! n&r. This produces

( )
r nt
A!P 1%
(1 % m1 )
m Amount with n compoundings per year
m n

( )
r mrt
1 2 !P 1% Substitute mr for n.
mr
10 2.59374246

( )
100 2.704813829 1 mrt

1,000 2.716923932 !P 1% Simplify.

m
10,000 2.718145927

,( )-.
1 m rt
100,000 2.718268237
1,000,000 2.718280469 !P 1% Property of exponents
m
10,000,000 2.718281693
As m increases without bound (that is, as m → &), the table at the left shows that
*1 % "1&m#+m → e. From this, you can conclude that the formula for continuous
& e
compounding is
A ! Pert. Substitute e for "1 % 1&m#m.

REMARK Be sure you see

Formulas for Compound Interest
that, when using the formulas
for compound interest, you must After t years, the balance A in an account with principal P and annual interest
write the annual interest rate in rate r (in decimal form) is given by the following formulas.
decimal form. For instance, you
( )
r nt
must write 6% as 0.06. 1. For n compoundings per year: A ! P 1 %
n
2. For continuous compounding: A ! Pe rt

Compound Interest
You invest $12,000 at an annual rate of 3%. Find the balance after 5 years when the
interest is compounded
a. quarterly.
b. monthly.
c. continuously.
Solution
a. For quarterly compounding, you have n ! 4. So, in 5 years at 3%, the balance is

( )
r nt
A!P 1% Formula for compound interest
n
4"5#

( )
0.03
! 12,000 1 % Substitute for P, r, n, and t.
4
' $13,934.21. Use a calculator.

b. For monthly compounding, you have n ! 12. So, in 5 years at 3%, the balance is

( )
r nt
A!P 1% Formula for compound interest
n
12"5#

( )
0.03
! 12,000 1 % Substitute for P, r, n, and t.
12
' $13,939.40. Use a calculator.

c. For continuous compounding, the balance is

A ! Pe rt Formula for continuous compounding

! 12,000e0.03"5# Substitute for P, r, and t.

' $13,942.01. Use a calculator.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

You invest $6000 at an annual rate of 4%. Find the balance after 7 years when the interest
is compounded
a. quarterly.
b. monthly.
c. continuously.

In Example 8, note that continuous compounding yields more than quarterly and
monthly compounding. This is typical of the two types of compounding. That is, for a
given principal, interest rate, and time, continuous compounding will always yield a
larger balance than compounding n times per year.

Radioactive Decay
In 1986, a nuclear reactor accident occurred in Chernobyl in what was then the Soviet
Union. The explosion spread highly toxic radioactive chemicals, such as plutonium
"239Pu#, over hundreds of square miles, and the government evacuated the city and the
surrounding area. To see why the city is now uninhabited, consider the model

(12)
t&24,100
P ! 10

which represents the amount of plutonium P that remains (from an initial amount of
10 pounds) after t years. Sketch the graph of this function over the interval from t ! 0
to t ! 100,000, where t ! 0 represents 1986. How much of the 10 pounds will remain
in the year 2017? How much of the 10 pounds will remain after 100,000 years?
Solution The graph of this function Radioactive Decay
P
is shown in the figure at the right. Note
10
from this graph that plutonium has a
( 12( t/24,100

Plutonium (in pounds)

9 P = 10
The International Atomic Energy half-life of about 24,100 years. That is, 8
Authority ranks nuclear incidents after 24,100 years, half of the original 7
and accidents by severity using amount will remain. After another 6
a scale from 1 to 7 called the 24,100 years, one-quarter of the original 5 (24,100, 5)
4
International Nuclear and amount will remain, and so on. In the 3 (100,000, 0.564)
Radiological Event Scale (INES). year 2017 "t ! 31#, there will still be 2
A level 7 ranking is the most 1

(12)
31&24,100
severe. To date, the Chernobyl P ! 10 t
accident is the only nuclear 50,000 100,000
accident in history to be given Years of decay
()
0.0012863
1
an INES level 7 ranking. ' 10
2
' 9.991 pounds
of plutonium remaining. After 100,000 years, there will still be

(12)
100,000&24,100
P ! 10

' 0.564 pound

of plutonium remaining.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In Example 9, how much of the 10 pounds will remain in the year 2089? How much of
the 10 pounds will remain after 125,000 years?

Summarize (Section 3.1)

1. State the definition of an exponential function f with base a (page 200). For
an example of evaluating exponential functions, see Example 1.
2. Describe the basic characteristics of the exponential functions y ! ax and
y ! a"x, a > 1 (page 202). For examples of graphing exponential functions,
see Examples 2, 3, and 5.
3. State the definitions of the natural base and the natural exponential function
(page 204). For examples of evaluating and graphing natural exponential
functions, see Examples 6 and 7.
4. Describe examples of how to use exponential functions to model and solve
real-life problems (pages 206 and 207, Examples 8 and 9).

Hellen Sergeyeva/Shutterstock.com

3.1 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary: Fill in the blanks.

1. Polynomial and rational functions are examples of ________ functions.
2. Exponential and logarithmic functions are examples of nonalgebraic functions, also called ________ functions.
3. You can use the ________ Property to solve simple exponential equations.
4. The exponential function f "x# ! e x is called the ________ ________ function, and the base e is called
the ________ base.
5. To find the amount A in an account after t years with principal P and an annual interest rate r compounded
n times per year, you can use the formula ________.
6. To find the amount A in an account after t years with principal P and an annual interest rate r compounded
continuously, you can use the formula ________.

Skills and Applications

Evaluating an Exponential Function In Exercises Graphing an Exponential Function In Exercises
7–12, evaluate the function at the indicated value of x. 17–22, use a graphing utility to construct a table of values
Round your result to three decimal places. for the function. Then sketch the graph of the function.
17. f "x# ! "12 # 18. f "x# ! "12 #
x "x
Function Value
7. f "x# ! 0.9x x ! 1.4 19. f "x# ! 6"x 20. f "x# ! 6 x
8. f "x# ! 2.3x x ! 32 21. f "x# ! 2 x"1 22. f "x# ! 4 x"3 % 3
9. f "x# ! 5x x ! "#
Using the One-to-One Property In Exercises 23–26,
f "x# ! "23 #
5x 3
10. x ! 10 use the One-to-One Property to solve the equation for x.
11. g "x# ! 5000"2x# x ! "1.5
23. 3x%1 ! 27 24. 2x"3 ! 16
12. f "x# ! 200"1.2#12x
25. "12 # ! 32
x ! 24 x 1
26. 5x"2 ! 125
Matching an Exponential Function with Its
Transforming the Graph of an Exponential
Graph In Exercises 13–16, match the exponential
Function In Exercises 27–30, use the graph of f to
function with its graph. [The graphs are labeled (a), (b),
describe the transformation that yields the graph of g.
(c), and (d).]
y y 27. f "x# ! 3 x, g"x# ! 3 x % 1
(a) (b)
6 6 28. f "x# ! 10 x, g"x# ! 10" x%3
f "x# ! "72 # , g"x# ! " "72 #
x "x
4 4
29.
30. f "x# ! 0.3 x, g"x# ! "0.3 x % 5
(0, 1) (0, 14 (
x x Graphing an Exponential Function In Exercises
−4 −2 2 4 −2 2 4 6
−2 −2
31–34, use a graphing utility to graph the exponential
function.
y y
(c) (d) 32. y ! 3".x.
2
31. y ! 2"x
6 6
33. y ! 3x"2 % 1 34. y ! 4x%1 " 2
4 4

2
Evaluating a Natural Exponential Function In
(0, 2) Exercises 35–38, evaluate the function at the indicated
(0, 1)
x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4
value of x. Round your result to three decimal places.
−2
−2
Function Value
13. f "x# ! 2x 35. f "x# ! ex x ! 3.2
14. f "x# ! 2x % 1 36. f "x# ! 1.5e x&2 x ! 240
15. f "x# ! 2"x 37. f "x# ! 5000e0.06x x!6
16. f "x# ! 2x"2 38. f "x# ! 250e0.05x x ! 20

Graphing a Natural Exponential Function In 65. Inflation Assuming that the annual rate of inflation
Exercises 39 – 44, use a graphing utility to construct a averages 4% over the next 10 years, the approximate
table of values for the function. Then sketch the graph of costs C of goods or services during any year in that
the function. decade will be modeled by C"t# ! P"1.04# t, where t is
the time in years and P is the present cost. The price of
39. f "x# ! e x 40. f "x# ! e "x
an oil change for your car is presently $23.95. Estimate
41. f "x# ! 3e x%4 42. f "x# ! 2e"0.5x the price 10 years from now.
43. f "x# ! 2e x"2 % 4 44. f "x# ! 2 % e x"5 66. Computer Virus The number V of computers
infected by a virus increases according to the model
Graphing a Natural Exponential Function In
V"t# ! 100e4.6052t, where t is the time in hours. Find
Exercises 45– 50, use a graphing utility to graph the
the number of computers infected after (a) 1 hour,
exponential function.
(b) 1.5 hours, and (c) 2 hours.
45. y ! 1.08e"5x 46. y ! 1.08e5x 67. Population Growth The projected populations
47. s"t# ! 2e0.12t 48. s"t# ! 3e"0.2t of the United States for the years 2020 through 2050
49. g"x# ! 1 % e"x 50. h"x# ! e x"2 can be modeled by P ! 290.323e0.0083t, where P is the
population (in millions) and t is the time (in years), with
Using the One-to-One Property In Exercises t ! 20 corresponding to 2020. (Source: U.S. Census
51–54, use the One-to-One Property to solve the equation Bureau)
for x. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the function for the
51. e3x%2 ! e3 52. e2x"1 ! e4 years 2020 through 2050.
2
53. ex "3 ! e2x
2
54. ex %6 ! e5x (b) Use the table feature of the graphing utility to
create a table of values for the same time period as
Compound Interest In Exercises 55–58, complete in part (a).
the table to determine the balance A for P dollars invested (c) According to the model, during what year will the
at rate r for t years and compounded n times per year. population of the United States exceed 400 million?
68. Population The populations P (in millions) of Italy
n 1 2 4 12 365 Continuous
from 2000 through 2012 can be approximated by the
A model P ! 57.563e0.0052t, where t represents the year,
with t ! 0 corresponding to 2000. (Source: U.S.
55. P ! $1500, r ! 2%, t ! 10 years Census Bureau, International Data Base)
56. P ! $2500, r ! 3.5%, t ! 10 years (a) According to the model, is the population of Italy
57. P ! $2500, r ! 4%, t ! 20 years increasing or decreasing? Explain.
58. P ! $1000, r ! 6%, t ! 40 years (b) Find the populations of Italy in 2000 and 2012.
(c) Use the model to predict the populations of Italy in
Compound Interest In Exercises 59–62, complete 2020 and 2025.
the table to determine the balance A for $12,000 invested
69. Radioactive Decay Let Q represent a mass of
at rate r for t years, compounded continuously.
radioactive plutonium "239Pu# (in grams), whose half-life
is 24,100 years. The quantity of plutonium present after
t 10 20 30 40 50
t years is Q ! 16"12 #t&24,100.
A (a) Determine the initial quantity (when t ! 0).
(b) Determine the quantity present after 75,000 years.
59. r ! 4% 60. r ! 6%
(c) Use a graphing utility to graph the function over the
61. r ! 6.5% 62. r ! 3.5%
interval t ! 0 to t ! 150,000.
63. Trust Fund On the day of a child’s birth, a parent 70. Radioactive Decay Let Q represent a mass of
deposits $30,000 in a trust fund that pays 5% interest, carbon 14 "14C# (in grams), whose half-life is 5715 years.
compounded continuously. Determine the balance in The quantity of carbon 14 present after t years is
this account on the child’s 25th birthday. Q ! 10"12 #t&5715.
64. Trust Fund A philanthropist deposits $5000 in (a) Determine the initial quantity (when t ! 0).
a trust fund that pays 7.5% interest, compounded (b) Determine the quantity present after 2000 years.
continuously. The balance will be given to the college
from which the philanthropist graduated after the (c) Sketch the graph of this function over the interval
money has earned interest for 50 years. How much will t ! 0 to t ! 10,000.
the college receive?

71. Depreciation After t years, the value of a wheelchair 81. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to
conversion van that originally cost $49,810 depreciates so graph y1 ! "1 % 1&x#x and y2 ! e in the same viewing
that each year it is worth 78 of its value for the previous year. window. Using the trace feature, explain what happens
(a) Find a model for V"t#, the value of the van after to the graph of y1 as x increases.
t years. 82. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to graph
(b) Determine the value of the van 4 years after it was
( )
x
0.5
purchased. f "x# ! 1 % and g"x# ! e0.5
x
72. Drug Concentration in the same viewing window. What is the relationship
Immediately following an injection, the concentration between f and g as x increases and decreases without
of a drug in the bound?
bloodstream is 83. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to graph
300 milligrams each pair of functions in the same viewing window.
per milliliter. Describe any similarities and differences in the graphs.
After t hours, the
(a) y1 ! 2x, y2 ! x2
concentration is
75% of the level of (b) y1 ! 3x, y2 ! x3
the previous hour.
(a) Find a model for
84. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The figure shows
C"t#, the concentration of the drug after t hours.
the graphs of y ! 2x, y ! ex, y ! 10x,
(b) Determine the concentration of the drug after y ! 2"x, y ! e"x, and y ! 10"x. Match each
8 hours. function with its graph. [The graphs are labeled
(a) through (f).] Explain your reasoning.
y
Exploration
c 10 d
True or False? In Exercises 73 and 74, determine b
8
e
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your 6
answer. a f
73. The line y ! "2 is an asymptote for the graph of
x
f "x# ! 10 x " 2. −2 −1 1 2
271,801
74. e !
99,990
85. Think About It Which functions are exponential?
Think About It In Exercises 75–78, use properties of (a) 3x
exponents to determine which functions (if any) are the
(b) 3x 2
same.
(c) 3x
75. f "x# ! 3x"2 76. f "x# ! 4x % 12
(d) 2"x
g"x# ! 3x " 9 g"x# ! 22x%6
86. Compound Interest Use the formula
h"x# ! 19"3x# h"x# ! 64"4x#
( )
r nt
77. f "x# ! 16"4"x# 78. f "x# ! e"x % 3 A!P 1%
n
g"x# ! " 14 #
x"2
g"x# ! e3"x
h"x# ! 16"2"2x# h"x# ! "e x"3 to calculate the balance of an investment when P ! $3000,
r ! 6%, and t ! 10 years, and compounding is done
79. Solving Inequalities Graph the functions y ! 3x (a) by the day, (b) by the hour, (c) by the minute, and
and y ! 4x and use the graphs to solve each inequality. (d) by the second. Does increasing the number of
(a) 4x < 3x (b) 4x > 3x compoundings per year result in unlimited growth of
the balance? Explain.
80. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to graph
each function. Use the graph to find where the function Project: Population per Square Mile To work an
is increasing and decreasing, and approximate any extended application analyzing the population per square
relative maximum or minimum values. mile of the United States, visit this text’s website at
(a) f "x# ! x 2e"x (b) g"x# ! x23"x LarsonPrecalculus.com. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
Sura Nualpradid/Shutterstock.com

3.2 Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs

Recognize and evaluate logarithmic functions with base a.
Graph logarithmic functions.
Recognize, evaluate, and graph natural logarithmic functions.
Use logarithmic functions to model and solve real-life problems.

Logarithmic Functions
In Section 1.9, you studied the concept of an inverse function. There, you learned that when
a function is one-to-one—that is, when the function has the property that no horizontal line
intersects the graph of the function more than once—the function must have an inverse
function. By looking back at the graphs of the exponential functions introduced in
Section 3.1, you will see that every function of the form f !x" ! a x passes the Horizontal
Line Test and therefore must have an inverse function. This inverse function is called
the logarithmic function with base a.

Definition of Logarithmic Function with Base a

For x > 0, a > 0, and a # 1,
Logarithmic functions can often
model scientific observations. y ! loga x if and only if x ! a y.
For instance, Exercise 81 on
The function
page 220 uses a logarithmic
function to model human f !x" ! loga x Read as “log base a of x.”
memory.
is called the logarithmic function with base a.

The equations y ! loga x and x ! a y are equivalent. The first equation is in

logarithmic form and the second is in exponential form. For example, 2 ! log3 9 is
equivalent to 9 ! 32, and 53 ! 125 is equivalent to log5 125 ! 3.
When evaluating logarithms, remember that a logarithm is an exponent. This means
that loga x is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x. For instance, log2 8 ! 3
because 2 raised to the third power is 8.

Evaluating Logarithms
Evaluate each logarithm at the indicated value of x.
a. f !x" ! log2 x, x ! 32 b. f !x" ! log3 x, x ! 1
c. f !x" ! log4 x, d. f !x" ! log10 x,
1
x!2 x ! 100
Solution
a. f !32" ! log2 32 ! 5 because 25 ! 32.
b. f !1" ! log3 1 ! 0 because 30 ! 1.
c. f !2" ! log4 2 ! 2
1
because 41#2 ! $4 ! 2.
d. f !100 " ! log10 100 ! "2 because
1 1
10"2 ! 101 2 ! 100
1
.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Evaluate each logarithm at the indicated value of x.

a. f !x" ! log6 x, x ! 1 b. f !x" ! log5 x, x ! 125 c. f !x" ! log10 x, x ! 10,000
1

Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com

The logarithmic function with base 10 is called the common logarithmic

function. It is denoted by log10 or simply by log. On most calculators, this function is
denoted by LOG . Example 2 shows how to use a calculator to evaluate common
logarithmic functions. You will learn how to use a calculator to calculate logarithms to
any base in the next section.

Evaluating Common Logarithms on a Calculator

Use a calculator to evaluate the function f !x" ! log x at each value of x.
a. x ! 10 b. x ! 13 c. x ! 2.5 d. x ! "2
Solution
Function Value Graphing Calculator Keystrokes Display
a. f !10" ! log 10 LOG 10 ENTER 1
b. f !13 " ! log 13 LOG % 1 " 3 & ENTER "0.4771213
c. f !2.5" ! log 2.5 LOG 2.5 ENTER 0.3979400
d. f !"2" ! log!"2" LOG %!& 2 ENTER ERROR
Note that the calculator displays an error message (or a complex number) when you try
to evaluate log!"2". The reason for this is that there is no real number power to which
10 can be raised to obtain "2.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use a calculator to evaluate the function f !x" ! log x at each value of x.

a. x ! 275 b. x ! 0.275 c. x ! " 12 d. x ! 12

The following properties follow directly from the definition of the logarithmic
function with base a.

Properties of Logarithms
1. loga 1 ! 0 because a0 ! 1.
2. loga a ! 1 because a1 ! a.
3. loga a x ! x and a log a x ! x Inverse Properties
4. If loga x ! loga y, then x ! y. One-to-One Property

Using Properties of Logarithms

a. Simplify log 4 1. b. Simplify log$7 $7. c. Simplify 6 log 6 20.
Solution
a. Using Property 1, log4 1 ! 0.
b. Using Property 2, log$7 $7 ! 1.
c. Using the Inverse Property (Property 3), 6 log 6 20 ! 20.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

a. Simplify log9 9. b. Simplify 20log20 3. c. Simplify log$3 1.

You can use the One-to-One Property (Property 4) to solve simple logarithmic
equations, as shown in Example 4.

Using the One-to-One Property

a. log3 x ! log3 12 Original equation

x ! 12 One-to-One Property

b. log!2x $ 1" ! log 3x 2x $ 1 ! 3x 1!x

c. log4!x2 " 6" ! log4 10 x2 " 6 ! 10 x2 ! 16 x ! ±4

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve log5!x2 $ 3" ! log5 12 for x.

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

To sketch the graph of y ! loga x, use the fact that the graphs of inverse functions are
reflections of each other in the line y ! x.

Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of each function.
y f(x) = 2x a. f !x" ! 2x b. g!x" ! log2 x

10 Solution
y=x
8 a. For f !x" ! 2x, construct a table of values. By plotting these points and connecting
them with a smooth curve, you obtain the graph shown in Figure 3.10.
6
g(x) = log 2 x
4 x "2 "1 0 1 2 3
f !x" ! 2x
2 1 1
4 2 1 2 4 8
x
−2 2 4 6 8 10
−2 b. Because g!x" ! log2 x is the inverse function of f !x" ! 2x, the graph of g is obtained
by plotting the points ! f !x", x" and connecting them with a smooth curve. The graph
Figure 3.10 of g is a reflection of the graph of f in the line y ! x, as shown in Figure 3.10.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graphs of (a) f !x" ! 8x and (b) g!x" ! log8 x.

Sketching the Graph of a Logarithmic Function

y
Sketch the graph of f !x" ! log x. Identify the vertical asymptote.
5
Vertical asymptote: x = 0 Solution Begin by constructing a table of values. Note that some of the values can
4
be obtained without a calculator by using the properties of logarithms. Others require a
3
calculator. Next, plot the points and connect them with a smooth curve, as shown in
2 f(x) = log x
Figure 3.11. The vertical asymptote is x ! 0 (y-axis).
1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Without calculator With calculator
−1
−2 1 1
x 100 10 1 10 2 5 8
Figure 3.11
f !x" ! log x "2 "1 0 1 0.301 0.699 0.903

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Sketch the graph of f !x" ! log9 x. Identify the vertical asymptote.

The nature of the graph in Figure 3.11 is typical of functions of the form
f !x" ! loga x, a > 1. They have one x-intercept and one vertical asymptote. Notice how
slowly the graph rises for x > 1. The following summarizes the basic characteristics of
logarithmic graphs.

y Graph of y ! loga x, a > 1

• Domain: !0, %"
1
y = loga x
• Range: !" %, %"
• x-intercept: !1, 0"
• Increasing
(1, 0)
x • One-to-one, therefore has an inverse function
1 2
• y-axis is a vertical asymptote
!loga x → " % as x → 0 $ ".
−1 • Continuous
• Reflection of graph of y ! ax in the line y ! x

The basic characteristics of the graph of f !x" ! a x are shown below to illustrate the
inverse relation between f !x" ! a x and g!x" ! loga x.
• Domain: !" %, %" • Range: !0, %"
• y-intercept: !0, 1" • x-axis is a horizontal asymptote !a x → 0 as x → " %".
The next example uses the graph of y ! loga x to sketch the graphs of functions of
the form f !x" ! b ± loga!x $ c". Notice how a horizontal shift of the graph results in
a horizontal shift of the vertical asymptote.

Shifting Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

The graph of each of the functions is similar to the graph of f !x" ! log x.
REMARK Use your a. Because g!x" ! log!x " 1" ! f !x " 1", the graph of g can be obtained by shifting
understanding of transformations
the graph of f one unit to the right, as shown in Figure 3.12.
to identify vertical asymptotes
of logarithmic functions. For b. Because h!x" ! 2 $ log x ! 2 $ f !x", the graph of h can be obtained by shifting
instance, in Example 7(a), the the graph of f two units up, as shown in Figure 3.13.
graph of g!x" ! f !x " 1" shifts
the graph of f !x" one unit to the y y

right. So, the vertical asymptote

(1, 2)
of the graph of g!x" is x ! 1, 1
f(x) = log x 2
one unit to the right of the h(x) = 2 + log x
vertical asymptote of the graph
of f !x". (1, 0)
x 1
1 (2, 0) f(x) = log x

−1 x
g(x) = log(x − 1) (1, 0) 2

Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

ALGEBRA HELP You can Use the graph of f !x" ! log3 x to sketch the graph of each function.
review the techniques for
a. g!x" ! "1 $ log3 x
shifting, reflecting, and
stretching graphs in Section 1.7. b. h!x" ! log3!x $ 3"

The Natural Logarithmic Function

By looking back at the graph of the natural exponential function introduced on page 204
in Section 3.1, you will see that f !x" ! e x is one-to-one and so has an inverse function.
This inverse function is called the natural logarithmic function and is denoted by the
special symbol ln x, read as “the natural log of x” or “el en of x.” Note that the natural
logarithm is written without a base. The base is understood to be e.

The Natural Logarithmic Function

y f(x) = e x
The function defined by
3
(1, e) f !x" ! loge x ! ln x, x > 0
2 y=x is called the natural logarithmic function.
(0, 1) (e, 1)
( −1, 1e )
The above definition implies that the natural logarithmic function and the natural
x
−2 −1 (1, 0) 2 3 exponential function are inverse functions of each other. So, every logarithmic equation
1 , −1 can be written in an equivalent exponential form, and every exponential equation can
−1
( e ) be written in an equivalent logarithmic form. That is, y ! ln x and x ! e y are equivalent
−2 g(x) = f −1(x) = ln x equations.
Because the functions f !x" ! e x and g!x" ! ln x are inverse functions of each other,
Reflection of graph of f !x" ! ex in the their graphs are reflections of each other in the line y ! x. Figure 3.14 illustrates this
line y ! x reflective property.
Figure 3.14 On most calculators, LN denotes the natural logarithm, as illustrated in Example 8.

Evaluating the Natural Logarithmic Function

Use a calculator to evaluate the function f !x" ! ln x at each value of x.
a. x ! 2
b. x ! 0.3
c. x ! "1
d. x ! 1 $ $2
Solution
Function Value Graphing Calculator Keystrokes Display
a. f !2" ! ln 2 LN 2 ENTER 0.6931472
b. f !0.3" ! ln 0.3 LN .3 ENTER –1.2039728
c. f !"1" ! ln!"1" LN %!& 1 ENTER ERROR
d. f !1 $ $2 " ! ln!1 $ $2 " LN % 1 + $ 2 & ENTER 0.8813736
REMARK Notice that as
with every other logarithmic Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.
function, the domain of the
natural logarithmic function Use a calculator to evaluate the function f !x" ! ln x at each value of x.
is the set of positive real
a. x ! 0.01 b. x ! 4 c. x ! $3 $ 2 d. x ! $3 " 2
numbers—be sure you see that
ln x is not defined for zero or
for negative numbers. In Example 8, be sure you see that ln!"1" gives an error message on most calculators.
(Some calculators may display a complex number.) This occurs because the domain
of ln x is the set of positive real numbers (see Figure 3.14). So, ln!"1" is undefined.
The four properties of logarithms listed on page 212 are also valid for natural
logarithms.

Properties of Natural Logarithms

1. ln 1 ! 0 because e0 ! 1.
2. ln e ! 1 because e1 ! e.
3. ln e x ! x and e ln x ! x Inverse Properties

4. If ln x ! ln y, then x ! y. One-to-One Property

Using Properties of Natural Logarithms

Use the properties of natural logarithms to simplify each expression.
1 ln 1
a. ln b. e ln 5 c. d. 2 ln e
e 3
Solution
1
a. ln ! ln e"1 ! "1 Inverse Property b. e ln 5 ! 5 Inverse Property
e
ln 1 0
c. ! !0 Property 1 d. 2 ln e ! 2!1" ! 2 Property 2
3 3

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use the properties of natural logarithms to simplify each expression.

3
a. ln e1#3 b. 5 ln 1 c. 4 ln e d. eln 7

Finding the Domains of Logarithmic Functions

Find the domain of each function.
a. f !x" ! ln!x " 2" b. g!x" ! ln!2 " x" c. h!x" ! ln x 2
Solution
a. Because ln!x " 2" is defined only when x " 2 > 0, it follows that the domain of f
is !2, %". Figure 3.15 shows the graph of f.
b. Because ln!2 " x" is defined only when 2 " x > 0, it follows that the domain of g
is !" %, 2". Figure 3.16 shows the graph of g.
c. Because ln x 2 is defined only when x 2 > 0, it follows that the domain of h is all real
numbers except x ! 0. Figure 3.17 shows the graph of h.

y y y
f(x) = ln(x − 2) h(x) = ln x 2
2 4
2
1 g(x) = ln(2 − x) 2
x
1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
x −2 2 4
−2
−1 1 2
−3
−1
−4 −4

Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16 Figure 3.17

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Find the domain of f !x" ! ln!x $ 3".

Application

Human Memory Model

Students participating in a psychology experiment attended several lectures on a subject and
took an exam. Every month for a year after the exam, the students took a retest to see how
much of the material they remembered. The average scores for the group are given by the
human memory model f !t" ! 75 " 6 ln!t $ 1", 0 & t & 12, where t is the time in months.
a. What was the average score on the original exam !t ! 0"?
b. What was the average score at the end of t ! 2 months?
c. What was the average score at the end of t ! 6 months?

Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution

a. The original average score was a. 100
Y1=75-6ln(X+1)
f !0" ! 75 " 6 ln!0 $ 1" Substitute 0 for t. When t = 0, f(0) = 75.
So, the original
! 75 " 6 ln 1 Simplify. average score was 75.
! 75 " 6!0" Property of natural logarithms
0 X=0 Y=75 12
! 75. Solution 0

b. After 2 months, the average score was b. 100

Y1=75-6ln(X+1)
f !2" ! 75 " 6 ln!2 $ 1" Substitute 2 for t. When t = 2, f(2) ≈ 68.41.
So, the average score
! 75 " 6 ln 3 Simplify. after 2 months was
' 75 " 6!1.0986" Use a calculator.
about 68.41.
0 X=2 Y=68.408326 12
' 68.41. Solution 0

c. After 6 months, the average score was c. 100

Y1=75-6ln(X+1)
f !6" ! 75 " 6 ln!6 $ 1" Substitute 6 for t. When t = 6, f(6) ≈ 63.32.
! 75 " 6 ln 7 Simplify. So, the average score
after 6 months was
' 75 " 6!1.9459" Use a calculator. about 63.32.
0 X=6 Y=63.324539 12
' 63.32. Solution 0

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In Example 11, find the average score at the end of (a) t ! 1 month, (b) t ! 9 months,
and (c) t ! 12 months.

Summarize (Section 3.2)

1. State the definition of a logarithmic function with base a (page 211) and make
a list of the properties of logarithms (page 212). For examples of evaluating
logarithmic functions and using the properties of logarithms, see Examples 1–4.
2. Explain how to graph a logarithmic function (pages 213 and 214). For examples
of graphing logarithmic functions, see Examples 5–7.
3. State the definition of the natural logarithmic function (page 215) and make
a list of the properties of natural logarithms (page 216). For examples of
evaluating natural logarithmic functions and using the properties of natural
logarithms, see Examples 8 and 9.
4. Describe an example of how to use a logarithmic function to model and solve
a real-life problem (page 217, Example 11).

3.2 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary: Fill in the blanks.

1. The inverse function of the exponential function f !x" ! ax is called the ________ function
with base a.
2. The common logarithmic function has base ________ .
3. The logarithmic function f !x" ! ln x is called the ________ logarithmic function and has
base ________.
4. The Inverse Properties of logarithms state that log a ax ! x and ________.
5. The One-to-One Property of natural logarithms states that if ln x ! ln y, then ________.
6. The domain of the natural logarithmic function is the set of ________ ________ ________ .

Skills and Applications

Writing an Exponential Equation In Exercises Using the One-to-One Property In Exercises 29–32,
7–10, write the logarithmic equation in exponential use the One-to-One Property to solve the equation for x.
form. For example, the exponential form of log5 25 # 2
29. log5!x $ 1" ! log5 6 30. log2!x " 3" ! log2 9
is 52 # 25.
1
31. log!2x $ 1" ! log 15 32. log!5x $ 3" ! log 12
7. log4 16 ! 2 8. log9 81 ! "2
9. log32 4 ! 25 10. log64 8 ! 12 Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions In Exercises 33–36, sketch the graphs of f
Writing a Logarithmic Equation In Exercises 11–14, and g in the same coordinate plane.
write the exponential equation in logarithmic form. For
33. f !x" ! 7x, g!x" ! log 7 x
example, the logarithmic form of 23 # 8 is log2 8 # 3.
34. f !x" ! 5x, g!x" ! log5 x
11. 53 ! 125 12. 9 3#2 ! 27
1
35. f !x" ! 6 x, g!x" ! log6 x
13. 4"3 ! 64 14. 240 ! 1
36. f !x" ! 10 x, g!x" ! log x
Evaluating a Logarithmic Function In Exercises
Matching a Logarithmic Function with Its Graph
15–20, evaluate the function at the indicated value of x
In Exercises 37–40, use the graph of g %x& # log3 x to
without using a calculator.
match the given function with its graph. Then describe
Function Value the relationship between the graphs of f and g. [The
15. f !x" ! log2 x x ! 64 graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).]
16. f !x" ! log25 x x!5 (a) y (b) y

17. f !x" ! log8 x x!1 3 3

18. f !x" ! log x x ! 10 2 2

19. g !x" ! loga x x ! a2 1

x x
20. g !x" ! logb x x ! b"3 –3 1 –4 –3 –2 –1 1
–1 –1
Evaluating a Common Logarithm on a Calculator –2 –2
In Exercises 21–24, use a calculator to evaluate y y
f %x& # log x at the indicated value of x. Round your (c) (d)
result to three decimal places. 3 3
2 2
21. x ! 87 1
22. x ! 500
1 1
23. x ! 12.5 24. x ! 96.75 x x
–2 –1 1 2 3 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
Using Properties of Logarithms In Exercises 25–28,
use the properties of logarithms to simplify the expression. –2 –2

25. log11 117 26. log3.2 1 37. f !x" ! "log3!x $ 2" 38. f !x" ! log3!x " 1"
27. log' ' 28. 9log915 39. f !x" ! log3!1 " x" 40. f !x" ! "log3!"x"

Sketching the Graph of a Logarithmic Function Using the One-to-One Property In Exercises
In Exercises 41–48, find the domain, x-intercept, and 73–76, use the One-to-One Property to solve the equation
vertical asymptote of the logarithmic function and sketch for x.
its graph.
73. ln!x $ 4" ! ln 12 74. ln!x " 7" ! ln 7
41. f !x" ! log4 x 42. g!x" ! log6 x 75. ln!x2 " 2" ! ln 23 76. ln!x2 " x" ! ln 6
43. y ! "log3 x $ 2 44. h!x" ! log4!x " 3"
77. Monthly Payment The model
45. f !x" ! "log6!x $ 2" 46. y ! log5!x " 1" $ 4

( x " 750),
x
()
x
47. y ! log 48. y ! log!"x" t ! 16.625 ln x > 750
7
approximates the length of a home mortgage of
Writing a Natural Exponential Equation In
$150,000 at 6% in terms of the monthly payment. In the
Exercises 49–52, write the logarithmic equation in
model, t is the length of the mortgage in years and x is
exponential form.
the monthly payment in dollars.
49. ln 21 ! "0.693 . . . 50. ln 7 ! 1.945 . . . (a) Use the model to approximate the lengths of a
51. ln 250 ! 5.521 . . . 52. ln 1 ! 0 $150,000 mortgage at 6% when the monthly
payment is $897.72 and when the monthly payment
Writing a Natural Logarithmic Equation In is $1659.24.
Exercises 53–56, write the exponential equation in
(b) Approximate the total amounts paid over the term
logarithmic form.
of the mortgage with a monthly payment of
53. e2 ! 7.3890 . . . 54. e1#2 ! 1.6487 . . . $897.72 and with a monthly payment of $1659.24.
55. e"0.9 ! 0.406 . . . 56. e2x ! 3 (c) Approximate the total interest charges for a
monthly payment of $897.72 and for a monthly
Evaluating a Logarithmic Function on a Calculator payment of $1659.24.
In Exercises 57–60, use a calculator to evaluate the
(d) What is the vertical asymptote for the model?
function at the indicated value of x. Round your result to
Interpret its meaning in the context of the problem.
three decimal places.
78. Wireless Only The percents P of households in
Function Value the United States with wireless-only telephone service
57. f !x" ! ln x x ! 18.42 from 2005 through 2011 can be approximated by
58. f !x" ! 3 ln x x ! 0.74 the model
59. g !x" ! 8 ln x x ! 0.05 P ! "4.00 $ 1.335t ln t, 5 & t & 11
60. g !x" ! "ln x x ! 21 where t represents the year, with t ! 5 corresponding to
2005. (Source: National Center for Health Statistics)
Evaluating a Natural Logarithm In Exercises
61–64, evaluate g%x& # ln x at the indicated value of x (a) Complete the table.
without using a calculator.
t 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
61. x ! e5 62. x ! e"4
63. x ! e"5#6 64. x ! e"5#2 P

Graphing a Natural Logarithmic Function In (b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function.
Exercises 65–68, find the domain, x-intercept, and vertical (c) Can the model be used to predict the percents of
asymptote of the logarithmic function and sketch its households with wireless-only telephone service
graph. beyond 2011? Explain.
65. f !x" ! ln!x " 4" 66. h!x" ! ln!x $ 5" 79. Population The time t (in years) for the world
67. g!x" ! ln!"x" 68. f !x" ! ln!3 " x" population to double when it is increasing at a continuous
rate of r is given by t ! !ln 2"#r.
Graphing a Natural Logarithmic Function In (a) Complete the table and interpret your results.
Exercises 69–72, use a graphing utility to graph the
function. Be sure to use an appropriate viewing window. r 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
69. f !x" ! ln!x " 1" 70. f !x" ! ln!x $ 2" t
71. f !x" ! ln x $ 8 72. f !x" ! 3 ln x " 1
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function.

80. Compound Interest A principal P, invested 85. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to graph
at 5 21% and compounded continuously, increases to an f and g in the same viewing window and determine
amount K times the original principal after t years, where which is increasing at the greater rate as x approaches
t ! !ln K"#0.055. $%. What can you conclude about the rate of growth
(a) Complete the table and interpret your results. of the natural logarithmic function?
(a) f !x" ! ln x, g!x" ! $x
K 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 (b) f !x" ! ln x, g!x" ! $ 4
x
t 86. Limit of a Function
(a) Complete the table for the function
(b) Sketch a graph of the function.
f !x" ! !ln x"#x.
81. Human Memory Model
Students in a mathematics class took an exam and then x 1 5 10 102 104 106
took a retest monthly with an equivalent exam. The f !x"
average scores for the class are given by the human
memory model
(b) Use the table in part (a) to determine what value
f !t" ! 80 " 17 log!t $ 1", 0 & t & 12 f !x" approaches as x increases without bound.
where t is the time in months. (c) Use a graphing utility to confirm the result of part (b).
(a) Use a graphing 87. Think About It A student obtained the following
utility to graph the table of values by evaluating a function. Determine which
model over the of the statements may be true and which must be false.
specified domain.
(b) What was the x 1 2 8
average score
y 0 1 3
on the original
exam !t ! 0"?
(a) y is an exponential function of x.
(c) What was the average score after 4 months?
(b) y is a logarithmic function of x.
(d) What was the average score after 10 months?
(c) x is an exponential function of y.
(d) y is a linear function of x.
82. Sound Intensity The relationship between the
number of decibels ( and the intensity of a sound I in
88. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The figure shows
watts per square meter is
the graphs of f !x" ! 3 x and g!x" ! log3 x.

(10 ).
I [The graphs are labeled m and n.]
( ! 10 log "12
y

(a) Determine the number of decibels of a sound with 10

an intensity of 1 watt per square meter. 9 m
8
(b) Determine the number of decibels of a sound with
7
an intensity of 10"2 watt per square meter.
6
(c) The intensity of the sound in part (a) is 100 times as 5
great as that in part (b). Is the number of decibels 4
100 times as great? Explain. 3
n
2
Exploration 1
x
True or False? In Exercises 83 and 84, determine −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your
answer.
(a) Match each function with its graph.
83. The graph of f !x" ! log6 x is a reflection of the graph of (b) Given that f !a" ! b, what is g!b"? Explain.
g!x" ! 6 x in the x-axis.
84. The graph of f !x" ! log3 x contains the point !27, 3".
89. Writing Explain why loga x is defined only for
0 < a < 1 and a > 1.
YAKOBCHUK VASYL/Shutterstock.com

3.3 Properties of Logarithms

Use the change-of-base formula to rewrite and evaluate logarithmic expressions.
Use properties of logarithms to evaluate or rewrite logarithmic expressions.
Use properties of logarithms to expand or condense logarithmic expressions.
Use logarithmic functions to model and solve real-life problems.

Change of Base
Most calculators have only two types of log keys, one for common logarithms (base 10) and
one for natural logarithms (base e). Although common logarithms and natural logarithms
are the most frequently used, you may occasionally need to evaluate logarithms with
other bases. To do this, use the following change-of-base formula.

Change-of-Base Formula
Let a, b, and x be positive real numbers such that a " 1 and b " 1. Then loga x
can be converted to a different base as follows.
Base b Base 10 Base e
logb x log x ln x
loga x ! loga x ! loga x !
Logarithmic functions can help logb a log a ln a
you model and solve real-life
problems. For instance,
Exercises 85 – 88 on page 226
One way to look at the change-of-base formula is that logarithms with base a are
use a logarithmic function to
constant multiples of logarithms with base b. The constant multiplier is
model the relationship between
the number of decibels and the 1
intensity of a sound. .
logb a

Changing Bases Using Common Logarithms

log 25 log x
log4 25 ! log a x !
log 4 log a

1.39794
! Use a calculator.
0.60206
! 2.3219 Simplify.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Evaluate log2 12 using the change-of-base formula and common logarithms.

Changing Bases Using Natural Logarithms

ln 25 ln x
log4 25 ! loga x !
ln 4 ln a

3.21888
! Use a calculator.
1.38629
! 2.3219 Simplify.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Evaluate log2 12 using the change-of-base formula and natural logarithms.

kentoh/Shutterstock.com

Properties of Logarithms
You know from the preceding section that the logarithmic function with base a is the
inverse function of the exponential function with base a. So, it makes sense that the
properties of exponents should have corresponding properties involving logarithms.
For instance, the exponential property auav ! au$v has the corresponding logarithmic
property loga$uv% ! loga u $ loga v.

REMARK There is no Properties of Logarithms

property that can be used to
Let a be a positive number such that a " 1, and let n be a real number. If u and
rewrite loga$u ± v%. Specifically,
v are positive real numbers, then the following properties are true.
loga$u $ v% is not equal to
loga u $ loga v. Logarithm with Base a Natural Logarithm
1. Product Property: loga$uv% ! loga u $ loga v ln$uv% ! ln u $ ln v
u u
2. Quotient Property: loga ! loga u # loga v ln ! ln u # ln v
v v
3. Power Property: loga u n ! n loga u ln u n ! n ln u

For proofs of the properties listed above, see Proofs in Mathematics on page 258.

Using Properties of Logarithms

Write each logarithm in terms of ln 2 and ln 3.
2
a. ln 6 b. ln
HISTORICAL NOTE 27
Solution
a. ln 6 ! ln$2 % 3% Rewrite 6 as 2 % 3.
! ln 2 $ ln 3 Product Property
2
b. ln ! ln 2 # ln 27 Quotient Property
27
! ln 2 # ln 33 Rewrite 27 as 33.

! ln 2 # 3 ln 3 Power Property

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Write each logarithm in terms of log 3 and log 5.

John Napier, a Scottish 9

a. log 75 b. log
mathematician, developed 125
logarithms as a way to simplify
tedious calculations. Beginning
in 1594, Napier worked about Using Properties of Logarithms
20 years on the development of
logarithms. Napier only partially Find the exact value of log5 "
3 5 without using a calculator.

succeeded in his quest to simplify

tedious calculations. Nonetheless, Solution
the development of logarithms 3 5 ! log 51#3 ! 1 log 5 ! 1 $1% ! 1
log5 " 5 3 5 3 3
was a step forward and received
immediate recognition.
Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Find the exact value of ln e6 # ln e2 without using a calculator.

Mary Evans Picture Library

Rewriting Logarithmic Expressions

The properties of logarithms are useful for rewriting logarithmic expressions in forms
that simplify the operations of algebra. This is true because these properties convert
complicated products, quotients, and exponential forms into simpler sums, differences,
and products, respectively.

Expanding Logarithmic Expressions

Expand each logarithmic expression.
"3x # 5
a. log4 5x3y b. ln
7
Solution
a. log4 5x3y ! log4 5 $ log4 x 3 $ log4 y Product Property

! log4 5 $ 3 log4 x $ log4 y Power Property

"3x # 5 $3x # 5%1#2

ALGEBRA HELP You b. ln ! ln Rewrite using rational exponent.
7 7
can review rewriting radicals
and rational exponents in ! ln$3x # 5%1#2 # ln 7 Quotient Property
Appendix A.2.
1
! ln$3x # 5% # ln 7 Power Property
2

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

4x2
Expand the expression log3 .
"y

Example 5 uses the properties of logarithms to expand logarithmic expressions.

Example 6 reverses this procedure and uses the properties of logarithms to condense
logarithmic expressions.

Condensing Logarithmic Expressions

Condense each logarithmic expression.
log x $ 3 log$x $ 1% b. 2 ln$x $ 2% # ln x c. 13 &log2 x $ log2$x $ 1%'
1
a. 2

Solution
log x $ 3 log$x $ 1% ! log x1#2 $ log$x $ 1%3
1
a. 2 Power Property

! log&"x $x $ 1%3' Product Property

b. 2 ln$x $ 2% # ln x ! ln$x $ 2%2 # ln x Power Property

$x $ 2% 2
! ln Quotient Property
x
c. 13 &log2 x $ log2$x $ 1%' ! 13 log2&x$x $ 1%' Product Property

! log2 &x$x $ 1%'1#3 Power Property

3 x$x $ 1%
! log2 " Rewrite with a radical.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Condense the expression 2&log$x $ 3% # 2 log$x # 2%'.

Application
One method of determining how the x- and y-values for a set of nonlinear data are related
is to take the natural logarithm of each of the x- and y-values. If the points, when
graphed, fall on a line, then you can determine that the x- and y-values are related by
the equation ln y ! m ln x where m is the slope of the line.

Finding a Mathematical Model

The table shows the mean distance from the sun x and the period y (the time it takes a
Planets Near the Sun
y planet to orbit the sun) for each of the six planets that are closest to the sun. In the table,
the mean distance is given in terms of astronomical units (where Earth’s mean distance
30 Saturn
is defined as 1.0), and the period is given in years. Find an equation that relates y and x.
25
Period (in years)

20
Mercury Planet Mean Distance, x Period, y
15
Venus Mercury 0.387 0.241
LarsonPrecalculus.com

10
Jupiter
Earth Venus 0.723 0.615
5 Earth 1.000 1.000
Spreadsheet at

Mars
x Mars 1.524 1.881
2 4 6 8 10 Jupiter 5.203 11.860
Mean distance Saturn 9.555 29.420
(in astronomical units)
Figure 3.18 Solution Figure 3.18 shows the plots of the points given by the above table. From this
figure, it is not clear how to find an equation that relates y and x. To solve this problem,
take the natural logarithm of each of the x- and y-values, as shown in the table at the
Planet ln x ln y left. Now, by plotting the points in the table at the left, you can see that all six of the
points appear to lie in a line (see Figure 3.19). Choose any two points to determine
Mercury #0.949 #1.423
the slope of the line. Using the points $0.421, 0.632% and $0, 0%, the slope of the line is
Venus #0.324 #0.486
0.632 # 0 3
m! ! 1.5 ! .
Earth 0.000 0.000 0.421 # 0 2
Mars 0.421 0.632 By the point-slope form, the equation of the line is Y ! 23 X, where Y ! ln y and
X ! ln x. So, ln y ! 32 ln x.
Jupiter 1.649 2.473
Saturn 2.257 3.382 Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Find a logarithmic equation that relates y and x for the following ordered pairs.
ln y $0.37, 0.51%, $1.00, 1.00%, $2.72, 1.95% $7.39, 3.79%, $20.09, 7.39%
Saturn
3
Jupiter Summarize (Section 3.3)
2
1. State the change-of-base formula (page 221). For examples that use the
3
ln y = 2 ln x change-of-base formula to rewrite and evaluate logarithmic expressions, see
1
Examples 1 and 2.
Mars
Earth 2. Make a list of the properties of logarithms (page 222). For examples that use
ln x
Venus 1 2 3 the properties of logarithms to evaluate or rewrite logarithmic expressions,
see Examples 3 and 4.
Mercury 3. Explain how to use the properties of logarithms to expand or condense
Figure 3.19 logarithmic expressions (page 223). For examples of expanding and condensing
logarithmic expressions, see Examples 5 and 6.
4. Describe an example of how to use a logarithmic function to model and solve
a real-life problem (page 224, Example 7).

3.3 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary
In Exercises 1–3, fill in the blanks.
1. To evaluate a logarithm to any base, use the ________ formula.
2. The change-of-base formula for base e is given by loga x ! ________.
3. You can consider loga x to be a constant multiple of logb x; the constant multiplier is ________.

In Exercises 4–6, match the property of logarithms with its name.

4. loga$uv% ! loga u $ loga v (a) Power Property
5. ln u n ! n ln u (b) Quotient Property
u
6. loga ! loga u # loga v (c) Product Property
v
Skills and Applications
Rewriting a Logarithm In Exercises 7–10, rewrite Expanding a Logarithmic Expression In
the logarithm as a ratio of (a) common logarithms and Exercises 37–58, use the properties of logarithms to
(b) natural logarithms. expand the expression as a sum, difference, and or
7. log5 16 8. log1#5 x constant multiple of logarithms. (Assume all variables
3 are positive.)
9. logx 10 10. log2.6 x
37. ln 4x 38. log3 10z
Using the Change-of-Base Formula In Exercises y
11–14, evaluate the logarithm using the change-of-base 39. log8 x 4 40. log10
2
formula. Round your result to three decimal places.
5 1
11. log3 7 12. log1#2 4 41. log5 42. log6 3
x z
13. log9 0.1 14. log3 0.015 43. ln "z 44. ln "t
3

Using Properties of Logarithms In Exercises 45. ln xyz2 46. log 4x2 y

( )
15–20, use the properties of logarithms to rewrite and x2 # 1
simplify the logarithmic expression. 47. ln z$z # 1%2, z > 1 48. ln , x > 1
x3
15. log4 8 16. log2$42 % 34% "a # 1 6
49. log2 , a > 1 50. ln
1
17. log5 250 9
18. log 300 9 "x $ 1
2

19. ln$5e6%
6
20. ln 2
e
51. ln" 3
x
y
52. ln "
x2
y3

53. ln x " "

y 2 y
Using Properties of Logarithms In Exercises 54. log2 x 4
z z3
21–36, find the exact value of the logarithmic expression
without using a calculator. (If this is not possible, then x2 xy4
55. log5 56. log10 5
state the reason.) y 2z 3 z
1 4 x3$x2 $ 3%
57. ln " 58. ln "x $x $ 2%
2
21. log3 9 22. log5 125
23. log2 "4 8 24. log6 "3 6
Using Properties of Logarithms In Exercises
25. log4 162 26. log3 81#3 59–66, approximate the logarithm using the properties
27. log2$#2% 28. log3$#27% of logarithms, given logb 2 y 0.3562, logb 3 y 0.5646, and
logb 5 y 0.8271.
29. ln e4.5 30. 3 ln e4
1 59. logb 10 60. log b 23
31. ln 32. ln "
4 e3
61. logb 8 62. logb "2
"e
33. ln e 2 $ ln e5 34. 2 ln e 6 # ln e 5 63. logb 45 64. logb$2b%#2
35. log5 75 # log5 3 36. log4 2 $ log4 32 65. logb$3b2% 66. logb " 3 3b

Condensing a Logarithmic Expression In Curve Fitting In Exercises 89–92, find a logarithmic

Exercises 67–82, condense the expression to the equation that relates y and x. Explain the steps used to
logarithm of a single quantity. find the equation.
67. ln 2 $ ln x 68. log5 8 # log5 t 89.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
69. 2 log2 x $ 4 log2 y 70. 23 log7$z # 2%
1 y 1 1.189 1.316 1.414 1.495 1.565
71. 4 log3 5x 72. #4 log6 2x
73. log x # 2 log$x $ 1% 74. 2 ln 8 $ 5 ln$z # 4% 90.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
75. log x # 2 log y $ 3 log z
76. 3 log3 x $ 4 log3 y # 4 log3 z y 1 1.587 2.080 2.520 2.924 3.302
77. ln x # &ln$x $ 1% $ ln$x # 1%'
91.
78. 4&ln z $ ln$z $ 5%' # 2 ln$z # 5% x 1 2 3 4 5 6

3 &2 ln$x $ 3% $ ln x # ln$x # 1%'

1 2
79. y 2.5 2.102 1.9 1.768 1.672 1.597
80. 2&3 ln x # ln$x $ 1% # ln$ x # 1%'
92.
3 &log8 y $ 2 log8$ y $ 4%' # log8$ y # 1%
1
81. x 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 &log4$x $ 1% $ 2 log4$x # 1%' $ 6 log4 x
1
82. y 0.5 2.828 7.794 16 27.951 44.091
Comparing Logarithmic Quantities In Exercises
83 and 84, compare the logarithmic quantities. If two are 93. Galloping Speeds of Animals Four-legged
equal, then explain why. animals run with two different types of motion: trotting
and galloping. An animal that is trotting has at least one
log2 32 32 foot on the ground at all times, whereas an animal that
83. , log2 , log2 32 # log2 4
log2 4 4 is galloping has all four feet off the ground at some
84. log7"70, log7 35, 12 $ log7 "10 point in its stride. The number of strides per minute at
which an animal breaks from a trot to a gallop depends
Sound Intensity on the weight of the animal. Use the table to find a
In Exercises 85 – 88, use the following information. logarithmic equation that relates an animal’s weight x
The relationship between the number of (in pounds) and its lowest galloping speed y (in strides
decibels ! and per minute).
the intensity of a
sound I in watts Weight, x Galloping Speed, y
per square meter is
25 191.5
LarsonPrecalculus.com

given by
35 182.7
*10 +.
I
50 173.8
Spreadsheet at

! " 10 log #12

75 164.2
85. Use the properties of logarithms to write the 500 125.9
formula in simpler form, and determine the 1000 114.2
number of decibels of a sound with an intensity
of 10#6 watt per square meter. 94. Nail Length The approximate lengths and diameters
86. Find the difference in loudness between an average (in inches) of common nails are shown in the table. Find
office with an intensity of 1.26 & 10#7 watt per a logarithmic equation that relates the diameter y of a
square meter and a broadcast studio with an common nail to its length x.
intensity of 3.16 & 10#10 watt per square meter.
Length, x Diameter, y
87. Find the difference in loudness between a vacuum
cleaner with an intensity of 10#4 watt per square 1 0.072
meter and rustling leaves with an intensity of
10#11 watt per square meter. 2 0.120
88. You and your roommate are playing your stereos 3 0.148
at the same time and at the same intensity. How
4 0.203
much louder is the music when both stereos are
playing compared with just one stereo playing? 5 0.238
kentoh/Shutterstock.com

95. Comparing Models A cup of water at an initial True or False? In Exercises 97–102, determine
temperature of 78'C is placed in a room at a constant whether the statement is true or false given that
temperature of 21'C. The temperature of the water is f ,x- " ln x. Justify your answer.
measured every 5 minutes during a half-hour period.
97. f $0% ! 0
The results are recorded as ordered pairs of the form
$t, T %, where t is the time (in minutes) and T is the 98. f $ax% ! f $a% $ f $x%, a > 0, x > 0
temperature (in degrees Celsius). 99. f $x # 2% ! f $x% # f $2%, x > 2
"f $x% ! 2 f $x%
1
$0, 78.0'%, $5, 66.0'%, $10, 57.5'%, $15, 51.2'%, 100.
$20, 46.3'%, $25, 42.4'%, $30, 39.6'% 101. If f $u% ! 2 f $v%, then v ! u2.
(a) The graph of the model for the data should be 102. If f $x% < 0, then 0 < x < 1.
asymptotic with the graph of the temperature of the
Using the Change-of-Base Formula In Exercises
room. Subtract the room temperature from each of
103–106, use the change-of-base formula to rewrite the
the temperatures in the ordered pairs. Use a graphing
logarithm as a ratio of logarithms. Then use a graphing
utility to plot the data points $t, T % and $t, T # 21%.
utility to graph the ratio.
(b) An exponential model for the data $t, T # 21% is
given by T # 21 ! 54.4$0.964%t. Solve for T and 103. f $x% ! log2 x
graph the model. Compare the result with the plot 104. f $x% ! log1#2 x
of the original data. 105. f $x% ! log1#4 x
(c) Take the natural logarithms of the revised 106. f $x% ! log11.8 x
temperatures. Use the graphing utility to plot the
points $t, ln$T # 21%% and observe that the points 107. Discussion A classmate claims that the following
appear to be linear. Use the regression feature of the are true.
graphing utility to fit a line to these data. This (a) ln$u $ v% ! ln u $ ln v ! ln$uv%
resulting line has the form ln$T # 21% ! at $ b.
u
Solve for T, and verify that the result is equivalent (b) ln$u # v% ! ln u # ln v ! ln
v
to the model in part (b).
(d) Fit a rational model to the data. Take the reciprocals (c) $ln u%n ! n$ln u% ! ln un
of the y-coordinates of the revised data points to Discuss how you would demonstrate that these claims
generate the points are not true.

(t, T #1 21).
108. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The figure shows the
Use the graphing utility to graph these points and graphs of y ! ln x, y ! ln x 2, y ! ln 2x, and
observe that they appear to be linear. Use the y ! ln 2. Match each function with its graph.
regression feature of the graphing utility to fit a line (The graphs are labeled A through D.) Explain
to these data. The resulting line has the form your reasoning.
1 y
! at $ b.
T # 21 3 D
Solve for T, and use the graphing utility to graph the 2 C
rational function and the original data points. B
1
(e) Why did taking the logarithms of the temperatures A
lead to a linear scatter plot? Why did taking the x
1 2 3 4
reciprocals of the temperatures lead to a linear −1
scatter plot?

Exploration
96. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to graph 109. Think About It For how many integers between
x 1 and 20 can you approximate natural logarithms,
the functions y1 ! ln x # ln$x # 3% and y2 ! ln given the values ln 2 ! 0.6931, ln 3 ! 1.0986, and
x#3
in the same viewing window. Does the graphing utility ln 5 ! 1.6094? Approximate these logarithms (do not
show the functions with the same domain? If so, should use a calculator).
it? Explain your reasoning.

3.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Solve simple exponential and logarithmic equations.
Solve more complicated exponential equations.
Solve more complicated logarithmic equations.
Use exponential and logarithmic equations to model and solve real-life problems.

Introduction
So far in this chapter, you have studied the definitions, graphs, and properties of
exponential and logarithmic functions. In this section, you will study procedures for
solving equations involving these exponential and logarithmic functions.
There are two basic strategies for solving exponential or logarithmic equations. The
first is based on the One-to-One Properties and was used to solve simple exponential and
logarithmic equations in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. The second is based on the Inverse
Properties. For a > 0 and a # 1, the following properties are true for all x and y for
which log a x and loga y are defined.
One-to-One Properties Inverse Properties
a x ! a y if and only if x ! y. a log a x ! x
Exponential and logarithmic loga x ! loga y if and only if x ! y. loga a x ! x
equations can help you
model and solve life science
applications. For instance, Solving Simple Equations
Exercise 83 on page 236 uses
an exponential function to model Original Rewritten
the number of trees per acre Equation Equation Solution Property
given the average diameter of a. 2x ! 32 2x ! 25 x!5 One-to-One
the trees.
b. ln x " ln 3 ! 0 ln x ! ln 3 x!3 One-to-One
c. !3 "
1 x
!9 3"x ! 32 x ! "2 One-to-One
d. e x ! 7 ln e x ! ln 7 x ! ln 7 Inverse
e. ln x ! "3 e ln x ! e"3 x ! e"3 Inverse
1
f. log x ! "1 10 log x ! 10"1 x ! 10"1 ! 10 Inverse
g. log3 x ! 4 3log3 x ! 34 x ! 81 Inverse

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve each equation for x.

a. 2x ! 512 b. log6 x ! 3 c. 5 " ex ! 0 d. 9x ! 31

The strategies used in Example 1 are summarized as follows.

Strategies for Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

1. Rewrite the original equation in a form that allows the use of the One-to-One
Properties of exponential or logarithmic functions.
2. Rewrite an exponential equation in logarithmic form and apply the Inverse
Property of logarithmic functions.
3. Rewrite a logarithmic equation in exponential form and apply the Inverse
Property of exponential functions.

goran cakmazovic/Shutterstock.com

Solving Exponential Equations

Solve each equation and approximate the result to three decimal places, if necessary.
b. 3!2 x" ! 42
2
a. e"x ! e"3x"4
Solution
2
a. e"x ! e"3x"4 Write original equation.

"x2 ! "3x " 4 One-to-One Property

REMARK
Another way to solve x2 " 3x " 4 ! 0 Write in general form.
Example 2(b) is by taking the !x $ 1"!x " 4" ! 0 Factor.
natural log of each side and then
applying the Power Property, !x $ 1" ! 0 x ! "1 Set 1st factor equal to 0.
as follows. !x " 4" ! 0 x!4 Set 2nd factor equal to 0.
3!2x" ! 42 The solutions are x ! "1 and x ! 4. Check these in the original equation.
2x ! 14 b. 3!2 x" ! 42 Write original equation.
ln 2x ! ln 14 2x ! 14 Divide each side by 3.
x ln 2 ! ln 14 log2 2 x ! log2 14 Take log (base 2) of each side.
ln 14
x! # 3.807 x ! log2 14 Inverse Property
ln 2
ln 14
Notice that you obtain the same x! # 3.807 Change-of-base formula
ln 2
result as in Example 2(b).
The solution is x ! log2 14 # 3.807. Check this in the original equation.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve each equation and approximate the result to three decimal places, if necessary.
b. 2!5x" ! 32
2
a. e2x ! ex "8

In Example 2(b), the exact solution is x ! log2 14, and the approximate solution is
x # 3.807. An exact answer is preferred when the solution is an intermediate step in a
larger problem. For a final answer, an approximate solution is easier to comprehend.

Solving an Exponential Equation

Solve e x $ 5 ! 60 and approximate the result to three decimal places.
Solution
e x $ 5 ! 60 Write original equation.

REMARK Remember that e x ! 55 Subtract 5 from each side.

the natural logarithmic function
has a base of e. ln e x ! ln 55 Take natural log of each side.

x ! ln 55 # 4.007 Inverse Property

The solution is x ! ln 55 # 4.007. Check this in the original equation.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve ex " 7 ! 23 and approximate the result to three decimal places.

Solving an Exponential Equation

Solve 2!32t"5" " 4 ! 11 and approximate the result to three decimal places.
Solution
2!32t"5" " 4 ! 11 Write original equation.

2!32t"5" ! 15 Add 4 to each side.

15
32t"5 ! Divide each side by 2.
2
15
log3 32t"5 ! log3 Take log (base 3) of each side.
2
15
2t " 5 ! log3 Inverse Property
2
REMARK Remember that
to evaluate a logarithm such as 2t ! 5 $ log3 7.5 Add 5 to each side.
log3 7.5, you need to use the
5 1
change-of-base formula. t! $ log3 7.5 Divide each side by 2.
2 2
ln 7.5
log3 7.5 ! # 1.834 t # 3.417 Use a calculator.
ln 3
5 1
The solution is t ! $ log3 7.5 # 3.417. Check this in the original equation.
2 2

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve 6!2t$5" $ 4 ! 11 and approximate the result to three decimal places.

When an equation involves two or more exponential expressions, you can still use
a procedure similar to that demonstrated in Examples 2, 3, and 4. However, the algebra
is a bit more complicated.

Solving an Exponential Equation of Quadratic Type

Solve e2x " 3ex $ 2 ! 0.

Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution

e 2x " 3e x $2!0 Write original equation. Use a graphing utility to graph y ! e2x " 3ex $ 2 and
then find the zeros.
!e x"2 " 3e x $ 2 ! 0 Write in quadratic form.

!
ex " 2"! ex " 1" ! 0 Factor.
3
y = e 2x − 3e x + 2
ex "2!0 Set 1st factor equal to 0.
Zeros occur
x ! ln 2 Solution at x = 0 and
x ≈ 0.693.
ex " 1 ! 0 Set 2nd factor equal to 0.
−3 3
Zero
x!0 Solution X=.69314718 Y=0
−1
The solutions are x ! ln 2 # 0.693 and x ! 0. Check these in the
original equation.
So, you can conclude that the solutions are x ! 0 and
x # 0.693.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve e2x " 7ex $ 12 ! 0.

Solving Logarithmic Equations

To solve a logarithmic equation, you can write it in exponential form.
REMARK Remember to ln x ! 3 Logarithmic form
check your solutions in the
original equation when solving e ln x ! e 3 Exponentiate each side.
equations to verify that the x ! e3 Exponential form
answer is correct and to make
sure that the answer is in the This procedure is called exponentiating each side of an equation.
domain of the original equation.
Solving Logarithmic Equations
a. ln x ! 2 Original equation

e ln x ! e 2 Exponentiate each side.

x! e2 Inverse Property

b. log3!5x " 1" ! log3!x $ 7" Original equation

5x " 1 ! x $ 7 One-to-One Property

x!2 Solution

c. log6!3x $ 14" " log6 5 ! log6 2x Original equation

log6 $3x $5 14% ! log 6 2x Quotient Property of Logarithms

3x $ 14
! 2x One-to-One Property
5
3x $ 14 ! 10x Multiply each side by 5.

x!2 Solution

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve each equation.

a. ln x ! 32 b. log2!2x " 3" ! log2!x $ 4" c. log 4x " log!12 $ x" ! log 2

Solving a Logarithmic Equation

Solve 5 $ 2 ln x ! 4 and approximate the result to three decimal places.
Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution
5 $ 2 ln x ! 4 Write original equation. 6
y2 = 4
2 ln x ! "1 Subtract 5 from each side. The intersection point is
about (0.607, 4). So, the
1 solution is x ≈ 0.607.
ln x ! " Divide each side by 2. y1 = 5 + 2 ln x
2
Intersection
eln x ! e"1&2 Exponentiate each side. 0 X=.60653066 Y=4 1
0
x ! e"1&2 Inverse Property

x # 0.607 Use a calculator.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve 7 $ 3 ln x ! 5 and approximate the result to three decimal places.

Solving a Logarithmic Equation

Solve 2 log5 3x ! 4.
Solution
2 log5 3x ! 4 Write original equation.

log5 3x ! 2 Divide each side by 2.

5 log5 3x ! 52 Exponentiate each side (base 5).

3x ! 25 Inverse Property

25
x! Divide each side by 3.
3
The solution is x ! 25
3 . Check this in the original equation.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve 3 log4 6x ! 9.

Because the domain of a logarithmic function generally does not include all real
numbers, you should be sure to check for extraneous solutions of logarithmic equations.

Checking for Extraneous Solutions

Solve log 5x $ log!x " 1" ! 2.
Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution
log 5x $ log!x " 1" ! 2 Write original equation. First, rewrite the original equation as
log '5x!x " 1"( ! 2 Product Property of Logarithms log 5x $ log!x " 1" " 2 ! 0.
10 log!5x "5x"
2
! 102 Exponentiate each side (base 10). Then use a graphing utility to graph the equation
5x 2 " 5x ! 100 Inverse Property y ! log 5x $ log!x " 1" " 2
x2 " x " 20 ! 0 Write in general form. and find the zero(s).
!x " 5"!x $ 4" ! 0 Factor.
y = log 5x + log(x − 1) − 2
x"5!0 Set 1st factor equal to 0.
3
x!5 Solution

x$4!0 Set 2nd factor equal to 0.

0 9 A zero occurs at
x ! "4 Solution x = 5. So, the
Zero solution is x = 5.
The solutions appear to be x ! 5 and x ! "4. However, when you check X=5 Y=0
these in the original equation, you can see that x ! 5 is the only solution. −3

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve log x $ log!x " 9" ! 1.

In Example 9, the domain of log 5x is x > 0 and the domain of log!x " 1" is x > 1,
REMARK Notice in so the domain of the original equation is
Example 9 that the logarithmic x > 1.
part of the equation is condensed
into a single logarithm before Because the domain is all real numbers greater than 1, the solution x ! "4 is
exponentiating each side of the extraneous. The graphical solution verifies this conclusion.
equation.

Applications

Doubling an Investment
You invest $500 at an annual interest rate of 6.75%, compounded continuously. How
long will it take your money to double?
Solution Using the formula for continuous compounding, the balance is
A ! Pe rt
A ! 500e 0.0675t.
To find the time required for the balance to double, let A ! 1000 and solve the resulting
equation for t.
500e 0.0675t ! 1000 Let A ! 1000.

e 0.0675t ! 2 Divide each side by 500.

ln e0.0675t ! ln 2 Take natural log of each side.

0.0675t ! ln 2 Inverse Property

ln 2
t! Divide each side by 0.0675.
0.0675
t # 10.27 Use a calculator.

The balance in the account will double after approximately 10.27 years. This result is
demonstrated graphically below.

A Doubling an Investment
1100
(10.27, 1000)
$
900
Balance (in dollars)

700

500 A = 500e 0.0675t

(0, 500)
300

100
t
2 4 6 8 10
Time (in years)

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

You invest $500 at an annual interest rate of 5.25%, compounded continuously. How
long will it take your money to double? Compare your result with that of Example 10.

In Example 10, an approximate answer of 10.27 years is given. Within the context
of the problem, the exact solution
ln 2
t!
0.0675
does not make sense as an answer.

3.4 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary: Fill in the blanks.

1. To solve exponential and logarithmic equations, you can use the following One-to-One and Inverse
Properties.
(a) ax ! ay if and only if ________. (b) loga x ! loga y if and only if ________.
(c) a log a x ! ________ (d) loga a x ! ________
2. An ________ solution does not satisfy the original equation.

Skills and Applications

Determining Solutions In Exercises 3–6, determine 19. 4!3x" ! 20 20. 4e x ! 91
whether each x-value is a solution (or an approximate 21. ex " 9 ! 19 22. 6x $ 10 ! 47
solution) of the equation.
23. 32x ! 80 24. 4"3t ! 0.10
3. 42x"7 ! 64 4. 4ex"1 ! 60 25. 23"x ! 565 26. 8"2"x ! 431
(a) x ! 5 (a) x ! 1 $ ln 15 27. 8!103x" ! 12 28. 8!36"x" ! 40
(b) x ! 2 (b) x ! ln 16 29. e3x ! 12 30. 1000e"4x ! 75
5. log2!x $ 3" ! 10 6. ln!2x $ 3" ! 5.8 31. 7 " 2e x ! 5 32. "14 $ 3e x ! 11
(a) x ! 1021 (a) x ! 21!"3 $ ln 5.8" 33. 6!23x"1" " 7 ! 9 34. 8!46"2x" $ 13 ! 41
(b) x ! 17 (b) x ! 12 !"3 $ e5.8" 35. 2x ! 3x$1 36. 2x$1 ! e1"x
(c) x ! 102 " 3 (c) x # 163.650 37. 4x ! 5 x
2 2
38. 3x ! 76"x
Solving a Simple Equation In Exercises 7–14, 39. e 2x " 4e x " 5 ! 0 40. e2x " 5e x $ 6 ! 0
solve for x. 500 400
41. ! 20 42. ! 350
8. !12 " ! 32 100 " e x&2 1 $ e"x
x
7. 4x ! 16

$ % $ %
9. ln x " ln 2 ! 0 10. e x ! 2 0.065 365t 0.10 12t
43. 1 $ !4 44. 1 $ !2
365 12
11. ln x ! "1 12. log x ! "2
13. log4 x ! 3 14. log5 x ! 12 Solving a Logarithmic Equation In Exercises
45– 62, solve the logarithmic equation algebraically.
Approximating a Point of Intersection In Approximate the result to three decimal places.
Exercises 15 and 16, approximate the point of intersection
of the graphs of f and g. Then solve the equation 45. ln x ! "3 46. ln x " 7 ! 0
f *x+ ! g*x+ algebraically to verify your approximation. 47. 2.1 ! ln 6x 48. log 3z ! 2
15. f !x" ! 2x 16. f !x" ! log3 x 49. 3 ln 5x ! 10 50. ln)x " 8 ! 5
g!x" ! 8 g!x" ! 2 51. 2 " 6 ln x ! 10
y y 52. 2 $ 3 ln x ! 12
12 53. 6 log3!0.5x" ! 11
g 4 54. 4 log!x " 6" ! 11
g
f 55. ln x " ln!x $ 1" ! 2
4 f
x 56. ln x $ ln!x $ 1" ! 1
x 4 8 12
−8 −4 4 8 57. ln!x $ 5" ! ln!x " 1" " ln!x $ 1"
−4
58. ln!x $ 1" " ln!x " 2" ! ln x
Solving an Exponential Equation In Exercises 59. log!3x $ 4" ! log!x " 10"
17– 44, solve the exponential equation algebraically. 60. log2 x $ log2!x $ 2" ! log2!x $ 6"
Approximate the result to three decimal places. 61. log4 x " log4!x " 1" ! 12
17. e x ! e x
2
"2
18. e x
2
"3 ! e x"2 62. log 8x " log!1 $ )x " ! 2

Graphing and Solving an Equation In Exercises 82. U.S. Currency The values y (in billions of dollars) of
63–70, use a graphing utility to graph and solve the U.S. currency in circulation in the years 2000 through 2010
equation. Approximate the result to three decimal can be modeled by y ! "611 $ 507 ln t, 10 % t % 20,
places. Verify your result algebraically. where t represents the year, with t ! 10 corresponding to
2000. During which year did the value of U.S. currency in
63. 5x ! 212 64. 6e1"x ! 25
circulation exceed $690 billion? (Source: Board of
65. 8e"2x&3 ! 11 66. e0.09t ! 3 Governors of the Federal Reserve System)
67. 3 " ln x ! 0 68. 10 " 4 ln!x " 2" ! 0
83. Trees per Acre
69. 2 ln!x $ 3" ! 3 70. ln!x $ 1" ! 2 " ln x
The number N of trees of a given species per acre
Compound Interest In Exercises 71 and 72, you is approximated by the model N ! 68!10"0.04x",
invest $2500 in an account at interest rate r, compounded 5 % x % 40, where
continuously. Find the time required for the amount to x is the average
(a) double and (b) triple. diameter of the
trees (in inches)
71. r ! 0.025 72. r ! 0.0375 3 feet above the
ground. Use the
Algebra of Calculus In Exercises 73–80, solve the
model to approximate
equation algebraically. Round your result to three decimal
the average diameter
places. Verify your answer using a graphing utility.
of the trees in a test
73. 2x2e2x $ 2xe2x ! 0 74. "x2e"x $ 2xe"x ! 0 plot when N ! 21.
75. "xe"x $ e"x ! 0 76. e"2x " 2xe"2x ! 0
1 " ln x 84. Demand The demand equation for a smart phone is
77. 2x ln x $ x ! 0 78. !0
x2
$ %
4
$%
1 $ ln x 1 p ! 5000 1 " .
79. !0 80. 2x ln "x!0 4 $ e"0.002x
2 x
Find the demand x for a price of (a) p ! $169 and
81. Average Heights The percent m of American (b) p ! $299.
males between the ages of 20 and 29 who are under 85. Automobiles Engineers design automobiles with
x inches tall is modeled by crumple zones that help protect their occupants in
100 crashes. The crumple zones allow the occupants to
m!x" ! , 64 % x % 78 move short distances when the automobiles come to
1 $ e"0.5536!x"69.51"
abrupt stops. The greater the distance moved, the
and the percent f of American females between the ages fewer g’s the crash victims experience. (One g is
of 20 and 29 who are under x inches tall is modeled by equal to the acceleration due to gravity.) In crash tests
100 with vehicles moving at 90 kilometers per hour,
f !x" ! , 60 % x % 78. analysts measured the numbers of g’s experienced
1$ e"0.5834!x"64.49"
during deceleration by crash dummies that were
(Source: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics) permitted to move x meters during impact. The table
(a) Use the graph to determine any horizontal asymptotes shows the data. A model for the data is given by
of the graphs of the functions. Interpret the meaning y ! "3.00 $ 11.88 ln x $ !36.94&x", where y is the
in the context of the problem. number of g’s.

x 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

100
80 g’s 158 80 53 40 32
population
Percent of

60
f(x)
(a) Complete the table using the model.
40
20
m(x)
x 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x
55 60 65 70 75 y
Height (in inches)
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the data points and
(b) What is the average height of each sex? the model in the same viewing window. How do
James Marshall/CORBIS
they compare?

(c) Use the model to estimate the distance traveled during 91. Think About It Is it possible for a logarithmic equation
impact, assuming that the passenger deceleration to have more than one extraneous solution? Explain.
must not exceed 30 g’s.
(d) Do you think it is practical to lower the number of 92. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Solving
g’s experienced during impact to fewer than 23? log3 x $ log3!x " 8" ! 2 algebraically, the
Explain your reasoning. solutions appear to be x ! 9 and x ! "1. Use
86. Data Analysis An object at a temperature of 160&C the graph of y ! log3 x $ log3!x " 8" " 2 to
was removed from a furnace and placed in a room at determine whether each value is an actual
20&C. The temperature T of the object was measured solution of the equation. Explain your
each hour h and recorded in the table. A model for the reasoning.
data is given by T ! 20 '1 $ 7!2"h"(. The figure shows y
the graph of this model.
3
Hour, h Temperature, T
0 160& (9, 0)
LarsonPrecalculus.com

x
1 90& 3 6 12 15
Spreadsheet at

2 56&
3 38& −3

4 29&
5 24&
93. Finance You are investing P dollars at an annual
(a) Use the graph to identify the horizontal asymptote
interest rate of r, compounded continuously, for t years.
of the model and interpret the asymptote in the
Which of the following would result in the highest value
context of the problem.
of the investment? Explain your reasoning.
(b) Use the model to approximate the time when the
(a) Double the amount you invest.
temperature of the object was 100&C.
(b) Double your interest rate.
T
(c) Double the number of years.
160
94. Think About It Are the times required for the
140
(in degrees Celsius)

investments in Exercises 71 and 72 to quadruple twice

120
Temperature

as long as the times for them to double? Give a reason

100
for your answer and verify your answer algebraically.
80
95. Effective Yield The effective yield of an investment
60
plan is the percent increase in the balance after 1 year.
40
Find the effective yield for each investment plan. Which
20
investment plan has the greatest effective yield? Which
h
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 investment plan will have the highest balance after
Hour 5 years?
(a) 7% annual interest rate, compounded annually
Exploration (b) 7% annual interest rate, compounded continuously
True or False? In Exercises 87–90, rewrite each verbal (c) 7% annual interest rate, compounded quarterly
statement as an equation. Then decide whether the (d) 7.25% annual interest rate, compounded quarterly
statement is true or false. Justify your answer. 96. Graphical Analysis Let f !x" ! loga x and
87. The logarithm of the product of two numbers is equal to g!x" ! ax, where a > 1.
the sum of the logarithms of the numbers. (a) Let a ! 1.2 and use a graphing utility to graph the
88. The logarithm of the sum of two numbers is equal to the two functions in the same viewing window. What
product of the logarithms of the numbers. do you observe? Approximate any points of
intersection of the two graphs.
89. The logarithm of the difference of two numbers is equal
to the difference of the logarithms of the numbers. (b) Determine the value(s) of a for which the two
graphs have one point of intersection.
90. The logarithm of the quotient of two numbers is equal
to the difference of the logarithms of the numbers. (c) Determine the value(s) of a for which the two
graphs have two points of intersection.

3.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Models

Recognize the five most common types of models involving exponential and
logarithmic functions.
Use exponential growth and decay functions to model and solve real-life problems.
Use Gaussian functions to model and solve real-life problems.
Use logistic growth functions to model and solve real-life problems.
Use logarithmic functions to model and solve real-life problems.

Introduction
The five most common types of mathematical models involving exponential functions
and logarithmic functions are as follows.
1. Exponential growth model: y ! ae bx, b > 0
2. Exponential decay model: y ! ae#bx, b > 0
ae#(x#b) !c
2
3. Gaussian model: y!
a
4. Logistic growth model: y!
1 " be#rx
5. Logarithmic models: y ! a " b ln x, y ! a " b log x

Exponential growth and decay The basic shapes of the graphs of these functions are as follows.
models can often represent the
y y y
populations of countries. For
instance, in Exercise 30 on
4 4
page 246, you will use exponential 2
growth and decay models to 3 3 y = e −x
2

compare the populations of

2 y = e−x 2
several countries. y = ex
1 1

x x x
−1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 −1 1
−1 −1
−1
−2 −2

Exponential growth model Exponential decay model Gaussian model

y y y

3 y = 1 + ln x y = 1 + log x
2 2

2 1 1

y= 3
1 1 + e −5x x x
−1 1 1 2
x −1 −1
−1 1
−1 −2 −2

Logistic growth model Natural logarithmic model Common logarithmic model

You often gain insight into a situation modeled by an exponential or logarithmic

function by identifying and interpreting the asymptotes of the graph of the function.
Identify the asymptote(s) of the graph of each function shown above.
Alan Becker/Stone/Getty Images

Exponential Growth and Decay

Online Advertising
Estimates of the amounts (in billions of dollars) of U.S. online advertising spending from Online Advertising Spending
2011 through 2015 are shown in the table. A scatter plot of the data is shown at the right. S
(Source: eMarketer)
50

Dollars (in billions)

45
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
40
Advertising Spending 31.3 36.8 41.2 45.5 49.5
35

An exponential growth model that approximates the data is given by 30

S ! 9.30e0.1129t, 11 $ t $ 15 t
11 12 13 14 15
where S is the amount of spending (in billions of dollars) and t ! 11 represents 2011. Year (11 ↔ 2011)
Compare the values given by the model with the estimates shown in the table.
According to this model, when will the amount of U.S. online advertising spending
reach $80 billion?

Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution

The following table compares the two sets of advertising spending amounts. 90
Y1=9.30e^(0.1129X)
The model appears to
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 fit the data closely.
Advertising Spending 31.3 36.8 41.2 45.5 49.5 S = 9.30e 0.1129t
Model 32.2 36.0 40.4 45.2 50.6 10 X=15 Y=50.577884 22
0

To find when the amount of U.S. online advertising spending will reach y = 80 The intersection point
$80 billion, let S ! 80 in the model and solve for t. 90
of the model and the
line y = 80 is about
9.30e0.1129t ! S Write original model.
(19.1, 80). So,
9.30e0.1129t ! 80 Substitute 80 for S. according to the
S = 9.30e 0.1129t model, the amount of
e 0.1129t
" 8.6022 Divide each side by 9.30. Intersection U.S. online advertising
10 X=19.061224 Y=80 22 spending will reach
ln e0.1129t " ln 8.6022 Take natural log of each side. 0
$80 billion in 2019.
0.1129t " 2.1520 Inverse Property

t " 19.1 Divide each side by 0.1129.

According to the model, the amount of U.S. online advertising

spending will reach $80 billion in 2019.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In Example 1, when will the amount of U.S. online advertising spending reach
$100 billion?

TECHNOLOGY Some graphing utilities have an exponential regression

feature that can help you find exponential models to represent data. If you have
such a graphing utility, try using it to find an exponential model for the data
given in Example 1. How does your model compare with the model given in
Example 1?

In Example 1, the exponential growth model is given. But if this model were
not given, then how would you find such a model? Example 2 demonstrates one
technique.

Modeling Population Growth

In a research experiment, a population of fruit flies is increasing according to the
law of exponential growth. After 2 days there are 100 flies, and after 4 days there are
300 flies. How many flies will there be after 5 days?
Solution Let y be the number of flies at time t. From the given information, you
know that y ! 100 when t ! 2 and y ! 300 when t ! 4. Substituting this information
into the model y ! ae bt produces
100 ! ae2b and 300 ! ae 4b.
To solve for b, solve for a in the first equation.
100 ! ae 2b Write first equation.

100
!a Solve for a.
e2b
Then substitute the result into the second equation.
300 ! ae 4b Write second equation.

300 ! '100
e (
e2b
4b
Substitute
100
e2b
for a.

300
! e 2b Simplify, and divide each side by 100.
100
ln 3 ! 2b Take natural log of each side.

1
ln 3 ! b Solve for b.
2
Using b ! 12 ln 3 and the equation you found for a,
100
a! Substitute 21 ln 3 for b.
y Fruit Flies e2%#1!2$ ln 3&

600
100
! Simplify.
(5, 520) e ln 3
500
y = 33.33e 0.5493t 100
Population

400 ! Inverse Property

(4, 300)
3
300
" 33.33. Divide.
200
1
(2, 100) So, with a " 33.33 and b ! ln 3 " 0.5493, the exponential growth model is
2
100
y ! 33.33e 0.5493t
t
1 2 3 4 5
as shown in Figure 3.20. After 5 days, the population will be
Time (in days)
Figure 3.20
y ! 33.33e 0.5493#5$
" 520 flies.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

The number of bacteria in a culture is increasing according to the law of exponential

growth. After 1 hour there are 100 bacteria, and after 2 hours there are 200 bacteria.
How many bacteria will there be after 3 hours?

In living organic material, the ratio of Carbon Dating

R
the number of radioactive carbon isotopes
(carbon 14) to the number of nonradioactive 10−12 t=0
carbon isotopes (carbon 12) is about 1 to 1012. R = 112 e −t/8223
10
When organic material dies, its carbon 12
content remains fixed, whereas its radioactive

Ratio
1
(10−12 ) t ≈ 5700
carbon 14 begins to decay with a half-life of 2

about 5700 years. To estimate the age of dead t ≈ 19,000

organic material, scientists use the following
formula, which denotes the ratio of carbon 14 10−13
t
to carbon 12 present at any time t (in years). 5000 15,000
1 #t !8223 Time (in years)
R! e Carbon dating model
1012
The graph of R is shown at the right. Note that R decreases as t increases.

Carbon Dating
Estimate the age of a newly discovered fossil for which the ratio of carbon 14 to
carbon 12 is R ! 1!1013.

Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution

In the carbon dating model, substitute the given value of R to Use a graphing utility to graph the formula for the ratio
obtain the following. of carbon 14 to carbon 12 at any time t as
1 #t !8223 1 #x!8223
e !R Write original model. y1 ! e .
1012 1012
e#t !8223 1 1 In the same viewing window, graph y2 ! 1!1013.
12
! 13 Substitute for R.
10 10 1013

1 y1 = 1 e − x/8223
e#t !8223 ! Multiply each side by 1012.
10 −12
10 12
10
Use the intersect feature
1 y2 = 113
ln e#t !8223 ! ln Take natural log of each side. to estimate that x ≈ 18,934 10
10 when y = 1/10 13.
t 0 Intersection 25,000
# " #2.3026 Inverse Property X=18934.157 Y=1E-13
8223 −2(10 −13)

t " 18,934 Multiply each side by # 8223.

So, to the nearest thousand years, the age of the fossil is
So, to the nearest thousand years, the age of the fossil is about
about 19,000 years.
19,000 years.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Estimate the age of a newly discovered fossil for which the ratio of carbon 14 to
carbon 12 is R ! 1!1014.

The value of b in the exponential decay model y ! ae#bt determines the decay
of radioactive isotopes. For instance, to find how much of an initial 10 grams of
226Ra isotope with a half-life of 1599 years is left after 500 years, substitute this

information into the model y ! ae#bt.

1
1 1 ln 2
#10$ ! 10e#b#1599$ ln ! #1599b b!#
2 2 1599
Using the value of b found above and a ! 10, the amount left is
y ! 10e#%#ln#1!2$!1599&#500$ " 8.05 grams.

Gaussian Models
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, Gaussian models are of the form
y ! ae##x#b$ !c.
2

In probability and statistics, this type of model commonly represents populations that
are normally distributed. The graph of a Gaussian model is called a bell-shaped
curve. Try graphing the normal distribution with a graphing utility. Can you see why it
is called a bell-shaped curve?
For standard normal distributions, the model takes the form
1
e#x !2.
2
y!
)2%

The average value of a population can be found from the bell-shaped curve by
observing where the maximum y-value of the function occurs. The x-value
corresponding to the maximum y-value of the function represents the average value of
the independent variable—in this case, x.

SAT Scores
In 2011, the SAT mathematics scores for high school graduates in the United States
roughly followed the normal distribution given by
y ! 0.0034e##x#514$ !27,378,
2
200 $ x $ 800
where x is the SAT score for mathematics. Sketch the graph of this function. From the
graph, estimate the average SAT mathematics score. (Source: The College Board)
Solution The graph of the function is shown below. On this bell-shaped curve,
the maximum value of the curve represents the average score. From the graph, you
can estimate that the average mathematics score for high school graduates in 2011
was 514.

y
SAT Scores

50% of
0.003
population
Distribution

0.002

0.001
x = 514

x
200 400 600 800
Score

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In 2011, the SAT critical reading scores for high school graduates in the United States
roughly followed the normal distribution given by
y ! 0.0035e##x#497$ !25,992,
2
200 $ x $ 800
where x is the SAT score for critical reading. Sketch the graph of this function.
From the graph, estimate the average SAT critical reading score. (Source:
The College Board)

Figure 3.21

Spread of a Virus
On a college campus of 5000 students, one student returns from vacation with a
contagious and long-lasting flu virus. The spread of the virus is modeled by
5000
y! , t & 0
1 " 4999e#0.8t
where y is the total number of students infected after t days. The college will cancel
classes when 40% or more of the students are infected.
a. How many students are infected after 5 days?
b. After how many days will the college cancel classes?

Algebraic Solution Graphical Solution

a. After 5 days, the number of students infected is a. 6000
Y1=5000/(1+4999e^(-.8X))
5000 5000 Use the value feature
y! # $
! " 54.
1 " 4999e #0.8 5 1 " 4999e#4 to estimate that y ≈ 54 5000
y=
when x = 5. So, after 5 1 + 4999e − 0.8x
b. The college will cancel classes when the number of days, about 54 students
infected students is #0.40$#5000$ ! 2000. are infected.
0
X=5 Y=54.019085
20

− 1000
5000
2000 !
1 " 4999e#0.8t b. The college will cancel classes when the number of infected
students is #0.40$#5000$ ! 2000. Use a graphing utility to graph
1 " 4999e#0.8t ! 2.5
5000
1.5 y1 ! and y2 ! 2000
e#0.8t ! 1 " 4999e#0.8x
4999
in the same viewing window. Use the intersect feature of the
1.5
#0.8t ! ln graphing utility to find the point of intersection of the graphs.
4999
5000
1 1.5 y1 =
t!# ln 6000 1 + 4999e − 0.8x
0.8 4999 The point of intersection
t " 10.14 occurs near x ≈ 10.14.
So, after about 10 days, y2 = 2000
So, after about 10 days, at least 40% of the students will at least 40% of the
be infected, and the college will cancel classes. students will be infected,
and the college will 0 Intersection 20
X=10.13941 Y=2000
cancel classes. − 1000

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

In Example 5, after how many days are 250 students infected?

Logarithmic Models

Magnitudes of Earthquakes
On the Richter scale, the magnitude R of an earthquake of intensity I is given by
I
R ! log
I0
where I0 ! 1 is the minimum intensity used for comparison. Find the intensity of each
earthquake. (Intensity is a measure of the wave energy of an earthquake.)
a. Alaska in 2012: R ! 4.0 b. Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2011: R ! 6.3
Solution
a. Because I0 ! 1 and R ! 4.0, you have
I
4.0 ! log Substitute 1 for I0 and 4.0 for R.
1
104.0 ! 10log I Exponentiate each side.

104.0 ! I Inverse Property

10,000 ! I. Simplify.

b. For R ! 6.3, you have

On February 22, 2011, an
earthquake of magnitude 6.3 I
struck Christchurch, New Zealand. 6.3 ! log Substitute 1 for I0 and 6.3 for R.
1
The total economic loss was
estimated at 15.5 billion 106.3 ! 10log I Exponentiate each side.
U.S. dollars.
106.3 ! I Inverse Property

2,000,000 " I. Use a calculator.

Note that an increase of 2.3 units on the Richter scale (from 4.0 to 6.3) represents
an increase in intensity by a factor of 2,000,000!10,000 ! 200. In other words, the
intensity of the earthquake in Christchurch was about 200 times as great as that of
the earthquake in Alaska.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Find the intensities of earthquakes whose magnitudes are (a) R ! 6.0 and (b) R ! 7.9.

Summarize (Section 3.5)

1. State the five most common types of models involving exponential and
logarithmic functions (page 238).
2. Describe examples of how to use exponential growth and decay functions to
model and solve real-life problems (pages 239–241, Examples 1–3).
3. Describe an example of how to use a Gaussian function to model and solve a
real-life problem (page 242, Example 4).
4. Describe an example of how to use a logistic growth function to model and
solve a real-life problem (page 243, Example 5).
5. Describe an example of how to use a logarithmic function to model and solve
a real-life problem (page 244, Example 6).

Darrenp/Shutterstock.com

3.5 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Vocabulary: Fill in the blanks.

1. An exponential growth model has the form ________, and an exponential decay model has the form ________.
2. A logarithmic model has the form ________ or ________.
3. In probability and statistics, Gaussian models commonly represent populations that are ________ ________.
4. A logistic growth model has the form ________.

Skills and Applications

Solving for a Variable In Exercises 5 and 6, (a) solve 19. Comparing Models If $1 is invested over a
for P and (b) solve for t. 10-year period, then the balance A, where t represents
5. A ! Pe rt the time in years, is given by A ! 1 " 0.075* t + or
A ! e0.07t depending on whether the interest is simple
' (
r nt
6. A ! P 1 "
n interest at 721% or continuous compound interest at 7%.
Graph each function on the same set of axes. Which
Compound Interest In Exercises 7–12, complete the grows at a greater rate? (Remember that *t+ is the
table assuming continuously compounded interest. greatest integer function discussed in Section 1.6.)
Initial Annual Time to Amount After 20. Comparing Models If $1 is invested over a
Investment % Rate Double 10 Years 10-year period, then the balance A, where t represents
the time in years, is given by A ! 1 " 0.06* t + or
7. $1000 3.5% ! !
A ! %1 " #0.055!365$&*365t+ depending on whether the
8. $750 10 12% ! ! interest is simple interest at 6% or compound interest at
9. $750 ! 7 34 yr ! 1
52% compounded daily. Use a graphing utility to graph
10. $500 ! ! $1505.00 each function in the same viewing window. Which
11. ! 4.5% ! $10,000.00 grows at a greater rate?
12. ! ! 12 yr $2000.00
Radioactive Decay In Exercises 21–24, complete the
Compound Interest In Exercises 13 and 14, table for the radioactive isotope.
determine the principal P that must be invested at rate r, Half-life Initial Amount After
compounded monthly, so that $500,000 will be available Isotope (years) Quantity 1000 Years
for retirement in t years.
21. 226Ra 1599 10 g !
13. r ! 5%, t ! 10 14. r ! 321%, t ! 15 22. 14C 5715 6.5 g !
Compound Interest In Exercises 15 and 16, 23. 14C 5715 ! 2g
determine the time necessary for P dollars to double 24. 239Pu 24,100 ! 0.4 g
when it is invested at interest rate r compounded
(a) annually, (b) monthly, (c) daily, and (d) continuously. Finding an Exponential Model In Exercises
25–28, find the exponential model that fits the points
15. r ! 10% 16. r ! 6.5% shown in the graph or table.
17. Compound Interest Complete the table for the time 25. y 26. y
t (in years) necessary for P dollars to triple when interest 10 (3, 10) 8
is compounded (a) continuously and (b) annually at rate r. 8
6 (4, 5)
6
r 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 4
4
(0, ) 1
2
2 2
t (0, 1)
x x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4
18. Modeling Data Draw scatter plots of the data in
Exercise 17. Use the regression feature of a graphing 27. x 0 4 28. x 0 3
utility to find models for the data.
1
y 5 1 y 1 4

29. Population The populations P (in thousands) of 31. Website Growth The number y of hits a new
Horry County, South Carolina, from 1980 through 2010 website receives each month can be modeled by
can be modeled by y ! 4080e kt, where t represents the number of months
the website has been operating. In the website’s third
P ! 20.6 " 85.5e0.0360t
month, there were 10,000 hits. Find the value of k, and
where t represents the year, with t ! 0 corresponding to use this value to predict the number of hits the website
1980. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau) will receive after 24 months.
(a) Use the model to complete the table. 32. Population The populations P (in thousands) of
Tallahassee, Florida, from 2005 through 2010 can be
Year 1980 1990 2000 2010 modeled by P ! 319.2ekt, where t represents the
year, with t ! 5 corresponding to 2005. In 2006, the
Population
population of Tallahassee was about 347,000.
(Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
(b) According to the model, when will the population
of Horry County reach 350,000? (a) Find the value of k. Is the population increasing or
decreasing? Explain.
(c) Do you think the model is valid for long-term
predictions of the population? Explain. (b) Use the model to predict the populations of
Tallahassee in 2015 and 2020. Are the results
30. Population reasonable? Explain.
The table shows the mid-year populations (in millions) (c) According to the model, during what year will the
of five countries in 2010 and the projected populations population reach 410,000?
(in millions) for the year 2020. (Source: U.S. 33. Bacteria Growth The number of bacteria in a
Census Bureau) culture is increasing according to the law of exponential
growth. After 3 hours there are 100 bacteria, and after
Country 2010 2020 5 hours there are 400 bacteria. How many bacteria will
Bulgaria 7.1 6.6 there be after 6 hours?
34. Bacteria Growth The number of bacteria in a
Canada 33.8 36.4
culture is increasing according to the law of exponential
China 1330.1 1384.5 growth. The initial population is 250 bacteria, and the
population after 10 hours is double the population after
United Kingdom 62.3 65.8 1 hour. How many bacteria will there be after 6 hours?
United States 310.2 341.4 35. Depreciation A laptop computer that costs $1150
new has a book value of $550 after 2 years.
(a) Find the exponential growth or decay model (a) Find the linear model V ! mt " b.
y ! ae bt or y ! ae#bt for the population of each
(b) Find the exponential model V ! ae kt.
country by letting t ! 10 correspond to 2010. Use
the model to predict the population of each country (c) Use a graphing utility to graph the two models in the
in 2030. same viewing window. Which model depreciates
faster in the first 2 years?
(b) You can see that
the populations of (d) Find the book values of the computer after 1 year
the United States and after 3 years using each model.
and the United (e) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using
Kingdom are each model to a buyer and a seller.
growing at 36. Learning Curve The management at a plastics
different rates. factory has found that the maximum number of units
What constant in a worker can produce in a day is 30. The learning curve
the equation for the number N of units produced per day after a
y ! ae bt gives the growth rate? Discuss the new employee has worked t days is modeled by
relationship between the different growth rates N ! 30#1 # e kt $. After 20 days on the job, a new
and the magnitude of the constant. employee produces 19 units.
(c) You can see that the population of China is (a) Find the learning curve for this employee (first, find
increasing, whereas the population of Bulgaria the value of k).
is decreasing. What constant in the equation
(b) How many days should pass before this employee
y ! ae bt reflects this difference? Explain.
is producing 25 units per day?
Alan Becker/Stone/Getty Images

37. Carbon Dating 42. Population The populations P (in thousands) of a

(a) The ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 in a piece of city from 2000 through 2010 can be modeled by
wood discovered in a cave is R ! 1!814. Estimate 2632
P!
the age of the piece of wood. 1 " 0.083e0.050t
(b) The ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 in a piece of where t represents the year, with t ! 0 corresponding to
paper buried in a tomb is R ! 1!1311. Estimate the 2000.
age of the piece of paper. (a) Use the model to find the populations of the city in
38. Radioactive Decay Carbon 14 dating assumes the years 2000, 2005, and 2010.
that the carbon dioxide on Earth today has the same (b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function.
radioactive content as it did centuries ago. If this is true,
then the amount of 14C absorbed by a tree that grew (c) Use the graph to determine the year in which the
several centuries ago should be the same as the amount population will reach 2.2 million.
of 14C absorbed by a tree growing today. A piece of (d) Confirm your answer to part (c) algebraically.
ancient charcoal contains only 15% as much radioactive 43. Population Growth A conservation organization
carbon as a piece of modern charcoal. How long ago released 100 animals of an endangered species into a
was the tree burned to make the ancient charcoal, game preserve. The preserve has a carrying capacity of
assuming that the half-life of 14C is 5715 years? 1000 animals. The growth of the pack is modeled by the
39. IQ Scores The IQ scores for a sample of a class of logistic curve
returning adult students at a small northeastern college 1000
roughly follow the normal distribution p#t$ !
1 " 9e#0.1656t
y ! 0.0266e##x#100$ !450,
2
70 $ x $ 115
where t is measured in months (see figure).
where x is the IQ score.
p
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the function.
1200
(b) From the graph in part (a), estimate the average

species population
IQ score of an adult student. Endangered 1000
40. Education The amount of time (in hours per week) 800
a student utilizes a math-tutoring center roughly follows 600
the normal distribution
400
y ! 0.7979e##x#5.4$ !0.5, 4 $ x $ 7
2

200
where x is the number of hours. t
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the function. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time (in months)
(b) From the graph in part (a), estimate the average
number of hours per week a student uses the (a) Estimate the population after 5 months.
tutoring center. (b) After how many months is the population 500?
41. Cell Sites A cell site is a site where electronic (c) Use a graphing utility to graph the function. Use the
communications equipment is placed in a cellular graph to determine the horizontal asymptotes, and
network for the use of mobile phones. The numbers y of interpret the meaning of the asymptotes in the
cell sites from 1985 through 2011 can be modeled by context of the problem.
269,573 44. Sales After discontinuing all advertising for a tool
y!
1 " 985e#0.308t kit in 2007, the manufacturer noted that sales began to
drop according to the model
where t represents the year, with t ! 5 corresponding to
1985. (Source: CTIA-The Wireless Association) 500,000
S!
(a) Use the model to find the numbers of cell sites in 1 " 0.4e kt
the years 1998, 2003, and 2006. where S represents the number of units sold and t ! 7
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function. represents 2007. In 2011, 300,000 units were sold.
(c) Use the graph to determine the year in which the (a) Complete the model by solving for k.
number of cell sites reached 250,000. (b) Estimate sales in 2015.
(d) Confirm your answer to part (c) algebraically.

Geology In Exercises 45 and 46, use the Richter scale 55. Apple juice has a pH of 2.9 and drinking water has a pH
of 8.0. The hydrogen ion concentration of the apple
I
R " log juice is how many times the concentration of drinking
I0 water?
for measuring the magnitude R of an earthquake. 56. The pH of a solution decreases by one unit. By what
45. Find the intensity I of an earthquake measuring R on the factor does the hydrogen ion concentration increase?
Richter scale (let I0 ! 1).
57. Forensics At 8:30 A.M., a coroner went to the
(a) South Shetland Islands in 2012: R ! 6.6 home of a person who had died during the night.
(b) Oklahoma in 2011: R ! 5.6 In order to estimate the time of death, the coroner
(c) Papua New Guinea in 2011: R ! 7.1 took the person’s temperature twice. At 9:00 A.M. the
temperature was 85.7'F, and at 11:00 A.M. the
46. Find the magnitude R of each earthquake of intensity I
temperature was 82.8'F. From these two temperatures,
(let I0 ! 1).
the coroner was able to determine that the time elapsed
(a) I ! 199,500,000 since death and the body temperature were related by
(b) I ! 48,275,000 the formula
(c) I ! 17,000 T # 70
t ! #10 ln
Intensity of Sound In Exercises 47–50, use the 98.6 # 70
following information for determining sound intensity. where t is the time in hours elapsed since the person
The level of sound $, in decibels, with an intensity died and T is the temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) of
of I, is given by $ " 10 log ,I I0-, where I0 is an the person’s body. (This formula comes from a general
intensity of 10#12 watt per square meter, corresponding cooling principle called Newton’s Law of Cooling.
roughly to the faintest sound that can be heard by the It uses the assumptions that the person had a normal
human ear. In Exercises 47 and 48, find the level of body temperature of 98.6'F at death and that the room
sound $. temperature was a constant 70'F.) Use the formula to
47. (a) I ! 10#10 watt per m2 (quiet room) estimate the time of death of the person.
(b) I ! 10#5 watt per m2 (busy street corner) 58. Home Mortgage A $120,000 home mortgage for
30 years at 712% has a monthly payment of $839.06.
(c) I ! 10#8 watt per m2 (quiet radio) Part of the monthly payment covers the interest charge
(d) I ! 100 watt per m2 (threshold of pain) on the unpaid balance, and the remainder of the
48. (a) I ! 10#11 watt per m2 (rustle of leaves) payment reduces the principal. The amount paid toward
(b) I ! 102 watt per m2 (jet at 30 meters) the interest is

' (' (
12t
(c) I ! 10#4 watt per m2 (door slamming) Pr r
u!M# M# 1"
(d) I ! 10#2 watt per m2 (siren at 30 meters) 12 12
49. Due to the installation of noise suppression materials, and the amount paid toward the reduction of the
the noise level in an auditorium decreased from 93 to principal is
80 decibels. Find the percent decrease in the intensity
' ('1 " 12(
12t
Pr r
level of the noise as a result of the installation of these v! M# .
materials. 12
50. Due to the installation of a muffler, the noise level of an In these formulas, P is the size of the mortgage, r is the
engine decreased from 88 to 72 decibels. Find the interest rate, M is the monthly payment, and t is the time
percent decrease in the intensity level of the noise as (in years).
a result of the installation of the muffler. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph each function
in the same viewing window. (The viewing
pH Levels In Exercises 51–56, use the acidity model
window should show all 30 years of mortgage
given by pH " #log %H ! &, where acidity (pH) is
payments.)
a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration %H ! &
(measured in moles of hydrogen per liter) of a solution. (b) In the early years of the mortgage, is the greater part
of the monthly payment paid toward the interest or
51. Find the pH when %H " & ! 2.3 ( 10#5. the principal? Approximate the time when the
52. Find the pH when %H " & ! 1.13 ( 10#5. monthly payment is evenly divided between interest
53. Compute %H " & for a solution in which pH ! 5.8. and principal reduction.
54. Compute %H " & for a solution in which pH ! 3.2. (c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) for a repayment period of
20 years #M ! $966.71$. What can you conclude?

59. Home Mortgage The total interest u paid on a home 4

63. The graph of f #x$ ! " 5 is the graph of
mortgage of P dollars at interest rate r for t years is 1 " 6e#2 x
4

. /
rt g#x$ ! shifted to the right five units.
u!P #1 . 1 " 6e#2x
' (
12t
1
1# 64. The graph of a Gaussian model will never have an
1 " r!12
x-intercept.
Consider a $120,000 home mortgage at 712%.
65. Writing Use your school’s library, the Internet, or
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the total interest some other reference source to write a paper describing
function. John Napier’s work with logarithms.
(b) Approximate the length of the mortgage for which
the total interest paid is the same as the size of the
mortgage. Is it possible that some people are paying 66. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Identify each
twice as much in interest charges as the size of the model as exponential growth, exponential
mortgage? decay, Gaussian, linear, logarithmic, logistic
growth, quadratic, or none of the above.
60. Data Analysis The table shows the time t (in
Explain your reasoning.
seconds) required for a car to attain a speed of s miles
per hour from a standing start. (a) y (b) y

Speed, s Time, t
30 3.4
LarsonPrecalculus.com

40 5.0
50 7.0
Spreadsheet at

x x
60 9.3
70 12.0 (c) y (d) y
80 15.8
90 20.0

Two models for these data are as follows.

t1 ! 40.757 " 0.556s # 15.817 ln s x x
2
t2 ! 1.2259 " 0.0023s
(e) y (f) y
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to
find a linear model t3 and an exponential model t4
for the data.
(b) Use the graphing utility to graph the data and each
model in the same viewing window.
(c) Create a table comparing the data with estimates x x
obtained from each model.
(d) Use the results of part (c) to find the sum of the y y
(g) (h)
absolute values of the differences between the data
and the estimated values given by each model.
Based on the four sums, which model do you think
best fits the data? Explain.

Exploration x
x
True or False? In Exercises 61– 64, determine
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your
answer. Project: Sales per Share To work an extended
61. The domain of a logistic growth function cannot be the application analyzing the sales per share for Kohl’s
set of real numbers. Corporation from 1995 through 2010, visit this text’s website
at LarsonPrecalculus.com. (Source: Kohl’s Corporation)
62. A logistic growth function will always have an x-intercept.

Chapter Summary
Review
What Did You Learn? Explanation/Examples
Exercises

Recognize and evaluate The exponential function f with base a is denoted by f !x" " ax, 1–6
exponential functions with where a > 0, a ! 1, and x is any real number.
base a (p. 200).
y y
Graph exponential functions 7–20
and use the One-to-One
Property (p. 201).
y = ax y = a −x

(0, 1) (0, 1)

x x
Section 3.1

One-to-One Property: For a > 0 and a ! 1, ax " ay if and

only if x " y.

Recognize, evaluate, and graph The function f !x" " ex y

21–28
exponential functions with is called the natural 3 (1, e)
base e (p. 204). exponential function.
2

f(x) = e x
(−1, e −1) (0, 1)
(−2, e )
−2

x
−2 −1 1

Use exponential functions Exponential functions are used in compound interest formulas 29–32
to model and solve real-life (see Example 8) and in radioactive decay models (see Example 9).
problems (p. 205).

Recognize and evaluate For x > 0, a > 0, and a ! 1, y " loga x if and only if x " ay. 33– 44
logarithmic functions with The function f !x" " loga x is called the logarithmic function
base a (p. 211). with base a. The logarithmic function with base 10 is the
common logarithmic function. It is denoted by log10 or log.

Graph logarithmic functions The graph of y " loga x The function f !x" " ln x, x > 0, is 45–56
(p. 213), and recognize, is a reflection of the the natural logarithmic function. Its
evaluate, and graph natural graph of y " ax in the graph is a reflection of the graph
logarithmic functions (p. 215). line y " x. of f !x" " ex in the line y " x.
Section 3.2

y f(x) = e x
y
3
y=x (1, e)
2 y=x
2

y= ax (0, 1) (e, 1)
1 (0, 1) (−1, 1e (
(1, 0) x
x −2 −1 (1, 0) 2 3
−1 1 2 −1
( 1 , −1
e (
−1 y = log a x −2 g(x) = f −1(x) = ln x

Use logarithmic functions to A logarithmic function can model human memory. (See 57, 58
model and solve real-life Example 11.)
problems (p. 217).

Review
What Did You Learn? Explanation/Examples
Exercises

Use the change-of-base Let a, b, and x be positive real numbers such that a ! 1 and 59–62
formula to rewrite and evaluate b ! 1. Then loga x can be converted to a different base as
logarithmic expressions follows.
(p. 221).
Base b Base 10 Base e
logb x log x ln x
loga x " loga x " loga x "
logb a log a ln a
Section 3.3

Use properties of logarithms Let a be a positive number such that a ! 1, let n be a real 63–78
to evaluate, rewrite, expand, number, and let u and v be positive real numbers.
or condense logarithmic 1. Product Property: loga!uv" " loga u $ loga v
expressions (p. 222).
ln!uv" " ln u $ ln v
2. Quotient Property: loga!u#v" " loga u # loga v
ln!u#v" " ln u # ln v
3. Power Property: loga un " n loga u, ln un " n ln u

Use logarithmic functions Logarithmic functions can help you find an equation that relates 79, 80
to model and solve real-life the periods of several planets and their distances from the sun.
problems (p. 224). (See Example 7.)

Solve simple exponential and One-to-One Properties and Inverse Properties of exponential 81–86
logarithmic equations (p. 228). or logarithmic functions can help you solve exponential or
logarithmic equations.
Section 3.4

Solve more complicated To solve more complicated equations, rewrite the equations to 87–104
exponential equations (p. 229) allow the use of the One-to-One Properties or Inverse Properties
and logarithmic equations of exponential or logarithmic functions. (See Examples 2–9.)
(p. 231).

Use exponential and Exponential and logarithmic equations can help you find how 105, 106
logarithmic equations to long it will take to double an investment (see Example 10)
model and solve real-life and find the year in which companies reached a given amount
problems (p. 233). of sales (see Example 11).

Recognize the five most 1. Exponential growth model: y " aebx, b > 0 107–112
common types of models 2. Exponential decay model: y " ae#bx, b > 0
involving exponential and
ae#!x#b" #c
2

logarithmic functions (p. 238). 3. Gaussian model: y "

a
4. Logistic growth model: y "
1 $ be#rx
5. Logarithmic models: y " a $ b ln x, y " a $ b log x
Section 3.5

Use exponential growth and An exponential growth function can help you model a 113, 114
decay functions to model population of fruit flies (see Example 2), and an exponential
and solve real-life problems decay function can help you estimate the age of a fossil (see
(p. 239). Example 3).

Use Gaussian functions (p. 242), A Gaussian function can help you model SAT mathematics 115–117
logistic growth functions scores for high school graduates. (See Example 4.)
(p. 243), and logarithmic A logistic growth function can help you model the spread
functions (p. 244) to model of a flu virus. (See Example 5.)
and solve real-life problems.
A logarithmic function can help you find the intensity of
an earthquake given its magnitude. (See Example 6.)

Review Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

3.1 Evaluating an Exponential Function In 30. Depreciation After t years, the value V of a car that
originally cost $23,970 is given by V!t" " 23,970!34 " .
t
Exercises 1–6, evaluate the function at the indicated
value of x. Round your result to three decimal places. (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the function.
1. f !x" " 0.3x, x " 1.5 2. f !x" " 30x, x " (3 (b) Find the value of the car 2 years after it was
3. f !x" " 2#0.5x, x " % 4. f !x" " 1278 x#5, x " 1 purchased.
5. f !x" " 7!0.2 x", x " # (11 (c) According to the model, when does the car
depreciate most rapidly? Is this realistic? Explain.
6. f !x" " #14!5 x", x " #0.8
(d) According to the model, when will the car have no
Transforming the Graph of an Exponential value?
Function In Exercises 7–10, use the graph of f to
describe the transformation that yields the graph of g. Compound Interest In Exercises 31 and 32, complete
the table to determine the balance A for P dollars invested
7. f !x" " 5 x, g!x" " 5 x $ 1 at rate r for t years and compounded n times per year.
8. f !x" " 6x, g!x" " 6x$1
9. f !x" " 3x, g!x" " 1 # 3x n 1 2 4 12 365 Continuous
f !x" " !12 " , g!x" " # !12 "
x x$2
10. A
Graphing an Exponential Function In Exercises
11–16, use a graphing utility to construct a table of values 31. P " $5000, r " 3%, t " 10 years
for the function. Then sketch the graph of the function. 32. P " $4500, r " 2.5%, t " 30 years
11. f !x" " 4#x $ 4 12. f !x" " 2.65 x#1 3.2 Writing a Logarithmic Equation In Exercises
13. f !x" " 5 x#2 $ 4 14. f !x" " 2 x#6 # 5 33–36, write the exponential equation in logarithmic
15. f !x" " !12 " $ 3 16. f !x" " !18 " form. For example, the logarithmic form of 23 ! 8 is
#x x$2
#5
log2 8 ! 3.
Using the One-to-One Property In Exercises 17–20, 33. 33 " 27 34. 253#2 " 125
use the One-to-One Property to solve the equation for x.
35. e0.8 " 2.2255 . . . 36. e0 " 1
17. !13 "
x#3 1
"9 18. 3x$3 " 81
19. e 3x#5
" e7 20. e8#2x " e#3 Evaluating a Logarithmic Function In Exercises
37–40, evaluate the function at the indicated value of x
Evaluating the Natural Exponential Function In without using a calculator.
Exercises 21–24, evaluate f &x' ! e x at the indicated 37. f !x" " log x, x " 1000 38. g!x" " log9 x, x " 3
value of x. Round your result to three decimal places.
39. g!x" " log2 x, x " 14 40. f !x" " log3 x, x " 81
1

21. x " 8 22. x " 58

23. x " #1.7 24. x " 0.278 Using the One-to-One Property In Exercises
41– 44, use the One-to-One Property to solve the
Graphing a Natural Exponential Function In equation for x.
Exercises 25–28, use a graphing utility to construct a 41. log 4!x $ 7" " log 4 14 42. log8!3x # 10" " log8 5
table of values for the function. Then sketch the graph of
the function. 43. ln!x $ 9" " ln 4 44. ln!2x # 1" " ln 11

25. h!x" " e#x#2 26. h!x" " 2 # e#x#2 Sketching the Graph of a Logarithmic Function
27. f !x" " e x$2 28. s!t" " 4e#2#t, t > 0 In Exercises 45–48, find the domain, x-intercept, and
vertical asymptote of the logarithmic function and
29. Waiting Times The average time between incoming sketch its graph.
calls at a switchboard is 3 minutes. The probability F of 45. g!x" " log7 x
waiting less than t minutes until the next incoming call
is approximated by the model F!t" " 1 # e#t #3. The
switchboard has just received a call. Find the probability
46. f !x" " log $3x %
that the next call will be within 47. f !x" " 4 # log!x $ 5"
(a) 12 minute. (b) 2 minutes. (c) 5 minutes. 48. f !x" " log!x # 3" $ 1

Evaluating a Logarithmic Function on a Condensing a Logarithmic Expression In

Calculator In Exercises 49–52, use a calculator to Exercises 73–78, condense the expression to the
evaluate the function at the indicated value of x. Round logarithm of a single quantity.
your result to three decimal places, if necessary.
73. log2 5 $ log2 x
49. f !x" " ln x, x " 22.6 50. f !x" " ln x, x " e#12 74. log6 y # 2 log6 z
51. f !x" " 21 ln x, x " (e 75. ln x # 41 ln y
52. f !x" " 5 ln x, x " 0.98 76. 3 ln x $ 2 ln!x $ 1"
2 log3 x # 2 log3! y $ 8"
1
Graphing a Natural Logarithmic Function In 77.
Exercises 53–56, find the domain, x-intercept, and vertical 78. 5 ln! x # 2" # ln! x $ 2" # 3 ln x
asymptote of the logarithmic function and sketch its graph.
79. Climb Rate The time t (in minutes) for a small
53. f !x" " ln x $ 3 54. f !x" " ln!x # 3" plane to climb to an altitude of h feet is modeled by
55. h!x" " ln!x 2" 56. f !x" " 41 ln x t " 50 log )18,000#!18,000 # h"*, where 18,000 feet is
the plane’s absolute ceiling.
57. Antler Spread The antler spread a (in inches) and
(a) Determine the domain of the function in the context
shoulder height h (in inches) of an adult male American
of the problem.
elk are related by the model
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function and
h " 116 log!a $ 40" # 176. identify any asymptotes.
Approximate the shoulder height of a male American (c) As the plane approaches its absolute ceiling, what
elk with an antler spread of 55 inches. can be said about the time required to increase its
58. Snow Removal The number of miles s of roads altitude?
cleared of snow is approximated by the model (d) Find the time for the plane to climb to an altitude
of 4000 feet.
13 ln!h#12"
s " 25 # , 2 & h & 15 80. Human Memory Model Students in a learning
ln 3
theory study took an exam and then retested monthly
where h is the depth of the snow in inches. Use this for 6 months with an equivalent exam. The data
model to find s when h " 10 inches. obtained in the study are given by the ordered pairs
!t, s", where t is the time in months after the initial exam
3.3 Using the Change-of-Base Formula In and s is the average score for the class. Use the data to
Exercises 59 – 62, evaluate the logarithm using the find a logarithmic equation that relates t and s.
change-of-base formula (a) with common logarithms
and (b) with natural logarithms. Round your results to
!1, 84.2", !2, 78.4", !3, 72.1",
three decimal places. !4, 68.5", !5, 67.1", !6, 65.3"

59. log2 6 60. log12 200 3.4 Solving a Simple Equation In Exercises
81–86, solve for x.
61. log1#2 5 62. log3 0.28
1
81. 5x " 125 82. 6 x " 216
Using Properties of Logarithms In Exercises
83. e x " 3 84. log6 x " #1
63–66, use the properties of logarithms to rewrite and
simplify the logarithmic expression. 85. ln x " 4 86. ln x " #1.6

64. log2!12 "

1
63. log 18 Solving an Exponential Equation In Exercises
65. ln 20 66. ln!3e "
#4 87–90, solve the exponential equation algebraically.
Approximate the result to three decimal places.
Expanding a Logarithmic Expression In 2
87. e 4x " e x $3 88. e 3x " 25
Exercises 67–72, use the properties of logarithms to
expand the expression as a sum, difference, and/or 89. 2 x # 3 " 29 90. e 2x # 6e x $ 8 " 0
constant multiple of logarithms. (Assume all variables
are positive.) Graphing and Solving an Exponential Equation
In Exercises 91 and 92, use a graphing utility to graph
67. log5 5x 2 68. log 7x 4 and solve the equation. Approximate the result to three
9 (
3 x decimal places. Verify your result algebraically.
69. log3 70. log7
(x 14 91. 25e#0.3x " 12
71. ln x2y2z 72. ln
y#1 2
4 $
, y > 1 % 92. 2x " 3 $ x # ex

Solving a Logarithmic Equation In Exercises (e) y (f) y

93–100, solve the logarithmic equation algebraically. 3

Approximate the result to three decimal places. 2
3
93. ln 3x " 8.2 2 x
94. 4 ln 3x " 15 1 −1 1 2 3
x
95. ln x # ln 3 " 2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −2
−3
ln(x $ 8 " 3
−2
96.
97. log8!x # 1" " log8!x # 2" # log8!x $ 2" 107. y " 3e#2x#3 108. y " 4e 2x#3
98. log6!x $ 2" # log 6 x " log6!x $ 5" 109. y " ln!x $ 3" 110. y " 7 # log!x $ 3"
99. log !1 # x" " #1 6
111. y " 2e#!x$4" #3
2
112. y "
100. log !#x # 4" " 2 1 $ 2e#2x

Graphing and Solving a Logarithmic Equation 113. Finding an Exponential Model Find the
In Exercises 101–104, use a graphing utility to graph exponential model y " ae bx that fits the points !0, 2"
and solve the equation. Approximate the result to three and !4, 3".
decimal places. Verify your result algebraically. 114. Wildlife Population A species of bat is in danger
of becoming extinct. Five years ago, the total population
101. 2 ln!x $ 3" # 3 " 0
of the species was 2000. Two years ago, the total
102. x # 2 log!x $ 4" " 0 population of the species was 1400. What was the total
103. 6 log!x 2 $ 1" # x " 0 population of the species one year ago?
104. 3 ln x $ 2 log x " ex # 25 115. Test Scores The test scores for a biology test
follow a normal distribution modeled by
105. Compound Interest You deposit $8500 in an
y " 0.0499e#!x#71" #128, 40 & x & 100
2
account that pays 1.5% interest, compounded
continuously. How long will it take for the money where x is the test score. Use a graphing utility to
to triple? graph the equation and estimate the average test score.
106. Meteorology The speed of the wind S (in miles 116. Typing Speed In a typing class, the average
per hour) near the center of a tornado and the distance number N of words per minute typed after t weeks of
d (in miles) the tornado travels are related by the lessons is
model S " 93 log d $ 65. On March 18, 1925, a large
tornado struck portions of Missouri, Illinois, and N " 157#!1 $ 5.4e#0.12t ".
Indiana with a wind speed at the center of about Find the time necessary to type (a) 50 words per
283 miles per hour. Approximate the distance traveled minute and (b) 75 words per minute.
by this tornado.
117. Sound Intensity The relationship between the
3.5 Matching a Function with Its Graph In number of decibels ' and the intensity of a sound I in
Exercises 107–112, match the function with its graph. watts per square meter is
[The graphs are labeled (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f).] ' " 10 log!I#10#12".
(a) y (b) y
Find I for each decibel level '.
8 8
(a) ' " 60 (b) ' " 135 (c) ' " 1
6 6
4 4 Exploration
2
x x 118. Graph of an Exponential Function Consider
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 − 8 − 6 −4 − 2 2 the graph of y " e kt. Describe the characteristics
−2
of the graph when k is positive and when k is
(c) y (d) y negative.
8 10
6 8 True or False? In Exercises 119 and 120, determine
6 whether the equation is true or false. Justify your
4
4 answer.
2
2
x 119. logb b 2x " 2x
x
−4 −2
−2
2 4 6
−4 −2 2 4 6 120. ln!x $ y" " ln x $ ln y

Chapter Test See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Take this test as you would take a test in class. When you are finished, check your
work against the answers given in the back of the book.

In Exercises 1–4, evaluate the expression. Round your result to three decimal
places.
1. 4.20.6 2. 43%#2 3. e#7#10 4. e3.1

In Exercises 5–7, construct a table of values for the function. Then sketch the
graph of the function.
5. f !x" " 10#x 6. f !x" " #6 x#2 7. f !x" " 1 # e 2x

8. Evaluate (a) log7 7#0.89 and (b) 4.6 ln e2.

In Exercises 9–11, find the domain, x-intercept, and vertical asymptote of the
logarithmic function and sketch its graph.
9. f !x" " #log x # 6 10. f !x" " ln!x # 4" 11. f !x" " 1 $ ln!x $ 6"

In Exercises 12–14, evaluate the logarithm using the change-of-base formula.

Round your result to three decimal places.
12. log7 44 13. log16 0.63 14. log3#4 24

In Exercises 15–17, use the properties of logarithms to expand the expression as

a sum, difference, and/or constant multiple of logarithms. (Assume all variables
are positive.)
5(x !x # 1"3
15. log2 3a 4 16. ln 17. log
6 y2z

In Exercises 18–20, condense the expression to the logarithm of a single quantity.

18. log3 13 $ log3 y 19. 4 ln x # 4 ln y
y
Exponential Growth 20. 3 ln x # ln!x $ 3" $ 2 ln y
12,000 In Exercises 21–26, solve the equation algebraically. Approximate the result to
(9, 11,277)
10,000 three decimal places, if necessary.
8,000 1
21. 5x " 22. 3e#5x " 132
6,000 25
4,000 1025 1
23. "5 24. ln x "
2,000 (0, 2745) 8 $ e 4x 2
t 25. 18 $ 4 ln x " 7 26. log x $ log!x # 15" " 2
2 4 6 8 10
Figure for 27 27. Find the exponential growth model that fits the points shown in the graph.
28. The half-life of radioactive actinium !227Ac" is 21.77 years. What percent of a
present amount of radioactive actinium will remain after 19 years?
29. A model that can predict the height H (in centimeters) of a child based on his or
her age is H " 70.228 $ 5.104x $ 9.222 ln x, 41 & x & 6, where xis the age of the
child in years. (Source: Snapshots of Applications in Mathematics)
(a) Construct a table of values for the model. Then sketch the graph of the model.
(b) Use the graph from part (a) to predict the height of a child when he or she is
four years old. Then confirm your prediction algebraically.

See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and

Cumulative Test for Chapters 1–3 worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.

Take this test as you would take a test in class. When you are finished, check your
work against the answers given in the back of the book.
y 1. Plot the points !#2, 5" and !3, #1". Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line
4 segment joining the points and the distance between the points.
2
In Exercises 2–4, sketch the graph of the equation.
x
2 4 2. x # 3y $ 12 " 0 3. y " x 2 # 9 4. y " (4 # x
−2
−4 5. Find an equation of the line passing through !# 12, 1" and !3, 8".
Figure for 6 6. Explain why the graph at the left does not represent y as a function of x.
x
7. Evaluate (if possible) the function f !x" " at each specified value of the
x#2
independent variable.
(a) f !6" (b) f !2" (c) f !s $ 2"
8. Compare the graph of each function with the graph of y " ( 3 x. (Note: It is not

necessary to sketch the graphs.)

(a) r !x" " 12(
3 x (b) h !x" " (
3 x $ 2 (c) g!x" " ( 3 x $ 2

In Exercises 9 and 10, find (a) & f # g'&x', (b) & f " g'&x', (c) & fg'&x', and
(d) & f g'&x'. What is the domain of f g?
9. f !x" " x # 3, g!x" " 4x $ 1
10. f !x" " (x # 1, g!x" " x 2 $ 1

In Exercises 11 and 12, find (a) f ( g and (b) g ( f. Find the domain of each composite
function.
11. f !x" " 2x 2, g!x" " (x $ 6
12. f !x" " x # 2, g!x" " x ++
13. Determine whether h!x" " #5x $ 3 has an inverse function. If so, find the inverse
function.
14. The power P produced by a wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the
wind speed S. A wind speed of 27 miles per hour produces a power output of
750 kilowatts. Find the output for a wind speed of 40 miles per hour.
15. Find the quadratic function whose graph has a vertex at !#8, 5" and passes through
the point !#4, #7".

In Exercises 16–18, sketch the graph of the function.

16. h!x" " # !x 2 $ 4x"
17. f !t" " 14t!t # 2" 2
18. g!s" " s2 $ 4s $ 10

In Exercises 19–21, find all the zeros of the function and write the function as a
product of linear factors.
19. f !x" " x3 $ 2x 2 $ 4x $ 8
20. f !x" " x 4 $ 4x 3 # 21x 2
21. f !x" " 2x 4 # 11x3 $ 30x2 # 62x # 40

22. Use long division to divide 6x3 # 4x2 by 2x2 $ 1.

23. Use synthetic division to divide 3x 4 $ 2x2 # 5x $ 3 by x # 2.
24. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem and the table feature of a graphing utility
to find intervals one unit in length in which the function g!x" " x3 $ 3x2 # 6 is
guaranteed to have a zero. Adjust the table to approximate the real zeros of the
function.

In Exercises 25–27, sketch the graph of the rational function. Identify all
intercepts and asymptotes.
2x
25. f !x" "
x 2 $ 2x # 3
x2 # 4
26. f !x" "
x2 $ x # 2
x 3 # 2x 2 # 9x $ 18
27. f !x" "
x 2 $ 4x $ 3

In Exercises 28 and 29, solve the inequality. Then graph the solution set.
1 1
28. 2x3 # 18x & 0 29. )
x$1 x$5

In Exercises 30 and 31, use the graph of f to describe the transformation that yields
the graph of g.
30. f !x" " !5 " , g!x" " # !5 "
2 x
2 #x$3

31. f !x" " 2.2x, g!x" " #2.2x $ 4

In Exercises 32–35, use a calculator to evaluate the expression. Round your result
to three decimal places.
6
32. log 98 33. log 7
34. ln(31 35. ln!(40 # 5"

$x %
2 # 16
36. Use the properties of logarithms to expand ln , where x > 4.
x4
37. Condense 2 ln x # 2 ln!x $ 5" to the logarithm of a single quantity.
1

Year Sales, S In Exercises 38–40, solve the equation algebraically. Approximate the result to
three decimal places.
2000 37.2
Spreadsheet at LarsonPrecalculus.com

2001 38.4 38. 6e 2x " 72 39. e2x # 13e x $ 42 " 0 40. ln(x $ 2 " 3
2002 42.0
41. The sales S (in billions of dollars) of lottery tickets in the United States from 2000
2003 43.5 through 2010 are shown in the table. (Source: TLF Publications, Inc.)
2004 47.7
(a) Use a graphing utility to create a scatter plot of the data. Let t represent the
2005 47.4 year, with t " 0 corresponding to 2000.
2006 51.6
(b) Use the regression feature of the graphing utility to find a cubic model for the
2007 52.4
data.
2008 53.4
(c) Use the graphing utility to graph the model in the same viewing window used
2009 53.1
for the scatter plot. How well does the model fit the data?
2010 54.2
(d) Use the model to predict the sales of lottery tickets in 2018. Does your answer
Table for 41 seem reasonable? Explain.
42. The number N of bacteria in a culture is given by the model N " 175e kt, where t
is the time in hours. If N " 420 when t " 8, then estimate the time required for the
population to double in size.

SLIDE RULES Properties of Logarithms (p. 222)

William Oughtred (1574–1660) Let a be a positive number such that a ! 1, and let n be a real number. If u and v
invented the slide rule in 1625. are positive real numbers, then the following properties are true.
The slide rule is a computational
device with a sliding portion and a Logarithm with Base a Natural Logarithm
fixed portion. A slide rule enables 1. Product Property: loga!uv" " loga u $ loga v ln!uv" " ln u $ ln v
you to perform multiplication by
using the Product Property of u u
Logarithms. There are other slide 2. Quotient Property: loga " loga u # loga v ln " ln u # ln v
rules that allow for the calculation
v v
of roots and trigonometric 3. Power Property: loga u n " n loga u ln u n " n ln u
functions. Mathematicians and
engineers used slide rules until
the invention of the hand-held
calculator in 1972. Proof
Let
x " loga u and y " loga v.
The corresponding exponential forms of these two equations are
ax " u and ay " v.
To prove the Product Property, multiply u and v to obtain
uv " axay
" ax$y.
The corresponding logarithmic form of uv " a x$y is loga!uv" " x $ y. So,
loga!uv" " loga u $ loga v.
To prove the Quotient Property, divide u by v to obtain
u ax
" y
v a
" a x#y.
u u
The corresponding logarithmic form of " a x#y is loga " x # y. So,
v v
u
loga " loga u # loga v.
v
To prove the Power Property, substitute a x for u in the expression loga un, as
follows.
loga un " loga!a x"n Substitute a x for u.

" loga anx Property of Exponents

" nx Inverse Property of Logarithms

" n loga u Substitute loga u for x.

So, loga un " n loga u.

258

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P.S. Problem Solving
1. Graphical Analysis Graph the exponential function 10. Finding a Pattern for an Inverse Function
y " a x for a " 0.5, 1.2, and 2.0. Which of these curves Find a pattern for f #1!x" when
intersects the line y " x? Determine all positive numbers
ax $ 1
a for which the curve y " a x intersects the line y " x. f !x" "
ax # 1
2. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to graph
y1 " e x and each of the functions y2 " x 2, y3 " x3, where a > 0, a ! 1.
++
y4 " (x, and y5 " x . Which function increases at the 11. Determining the Equation of a Graph By
greatest rate as x approaches $+? observation, determine whether equation (a), (b), or (c)
3. Conjecture Use the result of Exercise 2 to make a corresponds to the graph. Explain your reasoning.
conjecture about the rate of growth of y1 " e x and y
y " x n, where n is a natural number and x approaches
8
$+.
6
4. Implication of “Growing Exponentially” Use
the results of Exercises 2 and 3 to describe what is 4
implied when it is stated that a quantity is growing
exponentially. x
−4 −2 2 4
5. Exponential Function Given the exponential −2
function
f !x" " a x (a) y " 6e#x2#2

show that 6
(b) y "
(a) f !u $ v" " f !u" * f !v".
(b) f !2x" " ) f !x"*2. 1 $ e#x#2
6. Hyperbolic Functions Given that (c) y " 6!1 # e#x 2#2"
e x $ e#x e x # e#x 12. Simple and Compound Interest You have
f !x" " and g!x" "
2 2 two options for investing $500. The first earns
show that 7% compounded annually, and the second earns
7% simple interest. The figure shows the growth of
) f !x"* 2 # )g!x"* 2 " 1. each investment over a 30-year period.
7. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to compare (a) Identify which graph represents each type of
the graph of the function y " e x with the graph of each investment. Explain your reasoning.
given function. )n! (read “n factorial”" is defined as
n! " 1 * 2 * 3 . . . !n # 1" * n.*
Investment (in dollars)

4000
x
(a) y1 " 1 $ 3000
1!
2000
x x2
(b) y2 " 1 $ $
1! 2! 1000

x x2 x3 t
(c) y3 " 1 $ $ $ 5 10 15 20 25 30
1! 2! 3!
Year
8. Identifying a Pattern Identify the pattern of
(b) Verify your answer in part (a) by finding the
successive polynomials given in Exercise 7. Extend the
equations that model the investment growth and
pattern one more term and compare the graph of the
by graphing the models.
resulting polynomial function with the graph of y " e x.
What do you think this pattern implies? (c) Which option would you choose? Explain your
reasoning.
9. Finding an Inverse Function Graph the function
13. Radioactive Decay Two different samples of
f !x" " e x # e#x. radioactive isotopes are decaying. The isotopes have
From the graph, the function appears to be one-to-one. initial amounts of c1 and c2, as well as half-lives of k1
Assuming that the function has an inverse function, find and k2, respectively. Find the time t required for the
f #1!x". samples to decay to equal amounts.

259

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
14. Bacteria Decay A lab culture initially contains 500 19. Identifying a Pattern Identify the pattern of
bacteria. Two hours later, the number of bacteria successive polynomials given in Exercise 18. Extend
decreases to 200. Find the exponential decay model of the pattern one more term and compare the graph of the
the form resulting polynomial function with the graph of
y " ln x. What do you think the pattern implies?
B " B0akt
20. Finding Slope and y-Intercept Using
that approximates the number of bacteria after t hours.
y " ab x and y " ax b
15. Colonial Population The table shows the colonial
population estimates of the American colonies from take the natural logarithm of each side of each equation.
1700 through 1780. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau) What are the slope and y-intercept of the line relating x
and ln y for y " ab x ? What are the slope and y-intercept
Year Population of the line relating ln x and ln y for y " ax b ?

1700 250,900 Ventilation Rate In Exercises 21 and 22, use the

Spreadsheet at LarsonPrecalculus.com

1710 331,700 model

1720 466,200 y ! 80.4 " 11 ln x, 100 & x & 1500
1730 629,400
1740 905,600 which approximates the minimum required ventilation
rate in terms of the air space per child in a public school
1750 1,170,800
classroom. In the model, x is the air space per child in
1760 1,593,600
cubic feet and y is the ventilation rate per child in cubic
1770 2,148,400 feet per minute.
1780 2,780,400
21. Use a graphing utility to graph the model and
In each of the following, let y represent the population approximate the required ventilation rate when there are
in the year t, with t " 0 corresponding to 1700. 300 cubic feet of air space per child.
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to 22. In a classroom designed for 30 students, the air
find an exponential model for the data. conditioning system can move 450 cubic feet of air per
minute.
(b) Use the regression feature of the graphing utility to
find a quadratic model for the data. (a) Determine the ventilation rate per child in a full
classroom.
(c) Use the graphing utility to plot the data and the
models from parts (a) and (b) in the same viewing (b) Estimate the air space required per child.
window. (c) Determine the minimum number of square feet of
(d) Which model is a better fit for the data? Would you floor space required for the room when the ceiling
use this model to predict the population of the height is 30 feet.
United States in 2018? Explain your reasoning.
Data Analysis In Exercises 23–26, (a) use a graphing
16. Ratio of Logarithms Show that utility to create a scatter plot of the data, (b) decide
loga x 1 whether the data could best be modeled by a linear
" 1 $ loga . model, an exponential model, or a logarithmic model,
loga#b x b
(c) explain why you chose the model you did in part (b),
17. Solving a Logarithmic Equation Solve (d) use the regression feature of the graphing utility to
!ln x"2 " ln x 2. find the model you chose in part (b) for the data and
graph the model with the scatter plot, and (e) determine
18. Graphical Analysis Use a graphing utility to how well the model you chose fits the data.
compare the graph of the function y " ln x with the
graph of each given function. 23. !1, 2.0", !1.5, 3.5", !2, 4.0", !4, 5.8", !6, 7.0", !8, 7.8"
(a) y1 " x # 1 24. !1, 4.4", !1.5, 4.7", !2, 5.5", !4, 9.9", !6, 18.1", !8, 33.0"
(b) y2 " !x # 1" # 12!x # 1"2 25. !1, 7.5", !1.5, 7.0", !2, 6.8", !4, 5.0", !6, 3.5", !8, 2.0"
(c) y3 " !x # 1" # 21!x # 1"2 $ 31!x # 1"3 26. !1, 5.0", !1.5, 6.0", !2, 6.4", !4, 7.8", !6, 8.6", !8, 9.0"

260

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