Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr.

Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Declaration
This document cannot be used as a substitute of prescribed text books
and reference books. The content presented here is a combination of
collection from text books, reference books and online resources and
own interpretation by Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick. Further, this
document is not intended to be used for commercial purpose and Dr.
Soumya Ranjan Mallick is not accountable for any issues, legal or
otherwise, arising out of use of this document.

Page 1 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

CONTENT

Sl. No. Title

Module-I: Basic concepts, deposits amenable to surface
01 mining, types of surface mining system-applicability,
advantages, disadvantages, classification and choice, unit
operations
Module - II: Elements of surface mine planning, concept of
stripping ratio, bench geometry, bench slope, overall pit
slope, selection of machineries, opening of mine, box cut,
formation of benches, ground preparation for excavation,
02 drilling and blasting, types of explosives, classification and
properties of explosives.
Module - III: Shovels, operation, productivity, applications and
03 limitations of shovels, hydraulic excavators, selection of size,
correlation between shovel capacity, dumper capacity and
crusher’s mix feed size, dragline, front end loader, scrapper,
bucket wheel excavator and continuous surface miner,
Transporting equipment, applications and limitations of
dumper, conveyor, in pit crushing and conveying
04 Module - IV: Extraction of mineral deposits: bedded, vein,
pipe, cap, massive
05 Module - V: Mine waste management, solid waste dump,
layout equipment, construction, precaution to be taken
against runoff water, dump stabilization process, Introduction
to placer deposits, effect of surface mining on environment
and mitigating measures

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Advantages

a) Like underground mining no mineral is blocked as shaft pillars,

supports of main roadways, etc.
b) Roof control and ventilation (for shallow open pit mines) problems
do not arise at all.
c) Early extraction, higher recovery and quick return of capital is
possible.
d) Low cost as compared to underground methods,
e) Low laborers requirements,
f) Hazards and dangers are less in opencast mining as compared to
the underground mining.
g) Large concentrated output and higher production are possible.
h) High efficiency of workers and high OMS is possible.
i) Artificial lights are needed only after dusk.
j) Quality control is easy.
k) Female laborers can work in an opencast mine in India.
l) High degree of mechanization is possible.
m) Relatively flexible on demand and output fluctuations
n) Lower drilling and blasting cost as compared to the underground
mining.

Limitations

1. The method may be uneconomic for extracting minerals at depth.

Generally opencast mining is limited to a depth below 320m.
2. There may be huge environmental problems.
3. Degradation of surface land. After reclamation also there may be
less possibilities of revival of original agricultural land. Department of
environment always shows concern on opencast mining activities.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

4. Weather affects the works. During rainy season unless proper steps
are taken for dewatering the mine, lower level can not be worked out.
Whereas in the winter during the night shift and in the mid-days of the
summer efficiency of the workers goes down.
5. Higher investment on equipment in the mechanized opencast mines.
6. Limited by the stripping ratio.
7. Require large and extensive deposits for high capacity mechanized
opencast mines.
8. Stability of bench slope should always be maintained.
9. Require a remote area for mine waste disposal.
10. Require careful sequencing of operations during stripping
process.

BENCH PARAMETERS

The height, width and the slope angle of the benches are the most
important parameters under this heading

Height of bench

If the height of the benches are increased the number of

benches will be less and it will help efficient loa and transportation
and will need less leveling work on the top of benches. The following
factors generally govern du the selection of height of a bench:

-thickness of deposit, depth, capacity of the drill machine,

maximum digging depth of the excavators, nature the rock (which
effects the formation of loose rocks, overhangs, etc.), transport
system (which restricts the bench height relating to the bench length
for the purpose of formation of ramp of the required gradient),
stability of rock (strong r stands in high benches whereas weak and
fractured rocks become unstable in that case), slope of the bench
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

(except lo and weak rock,it exceeds in practice more than 70°),

watery condition of the bench (stability including dynamic seepage
force of bench decreases if the rock is saturated with water and due
to this reason bench height shall be reduced presence of planes of
weakness (fault planes or weak bedding planes, etc.), variation of
ore grade, physical nature of t ore/mineral, extent of overburden,
etc.

However, if the bench height is more, there may be the problem of

supervision and control of loose from th bank slope. It will require
deep hole blasting with heavy amount of explosive which will
produce large fragments, mor ground vibration, more noise and will
require more amount of secondary blasting.

Advantages with larger height benches

The following advantages may be obtained if the bench height is

more-

• Efficiency of the shovel is increased if the bench height

matches the machine.
• Minimizes the amount of ripping and leveling of the bench
floor.
• Since there are fewer benches efficiency of the transport
system is improved.
• Offers higher mining momentum, larger blast and higher
productivity.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Limitations with larger height benches

• Because of jointing, slabbing, etc. probability of slope failure is

increased.
• Because of slope failure or boulder falling from the top, severe
damages of machinery and serious accident of workers may occur
due to greater momentum.
• Supervision of benches are difficult.
• Deep hole blasting may yield oversized fragmented ore/rock which
may require secondary blasting.
• Complexity may arise during selective mining.
• More dilution, flatter working slopes and fewer working places are
required, hence it has less selectivity.

Width of benches

It depends on the height of the bench, manner of blasting and

the transportation system. Bench width for rail transport system is
greater than that of the truck haulage system since the later system
has greater maneuverability and flexibility in operation. During
determining the bench width, the width of the muck pile, clearance
between the muck pile and the width for truck/ dumper movement,
width of either single lane traffic/double lane traffic, clearance for
the safety of track from the edge of the benches, etc. are to be
considered.

Optimum bench width is essential otherwise if the bench width is

more, it will adversely effect on economy since this will delay
production and lock up capital for a longer period. After reaching
to the limit of pit, the width of the bench is reduced for giving a
shape of overall required pit slope.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Slope angle

The angle of slope of bench should be either equal or less than

that of the angle of repose of the bench rock) In moderately loose
and friable rock, the dressing in the bank slope is necessary up to the
angle of repose of the rock to prevent overhanging and subsequent
falling of rock when the materials get loosened by the action of
weather or vibration of the heavy earth moving machineries. In
competent rocks angle of slope of the bench varies between 70°
and 859 This slope may be obtained by varying the inclination of the
blast holes. However, this slope angle also depends upon the plane
of weakness, orientation of bedding plane, etc. Slope failure is
governed by a slow process of rational shear; mechanical properties
of rock like cohesion, angle of friction, etc., pore water pressure,
seepage forces, tension cracks. etc. The following table gives an
idea of inclination of stable pit slope w.r.t. various rock types-

Rock Angle of stable pit

slope (Degrees)
Soft clay 25°-35°
Hard shale, sandstone, limestone, 40°-50°
dolomite
Weathered igneous rock, metamorphic 50°-60°
and igneous rock
Very hard metamorphic and igneous 60°-70°
rock

Stability of slope both in the working and waste dump (maximum

slope angle around 37° to 38° average benches are very important
for safety of both men and machines. However during selecting the
final pit slope the losses of coal or mineral in the mine boundary
should be ascertained carefully. As per CMR-1957 and MMR-1961

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and the DGMS circulars published from time to time, the following
practices are recommended or granted under special permission
and circumstances and at the same time exemption may also be
granted by the Regional Inspector in case of coal mines and Chief
Inspector in case of metalliferous mines-

1. In alluvium, soil, morum, gravel, clay or other similar soft ground,

height of the bench shall not exceed 1,5 m, the breadth (width) shall
not be less than the height and the angle of slope should not exceed
45° from the horizontal. When a pillar is left in situ for the purpose of
measurement of volume of excavation it's height shall not exceed 2.5
m and where the height of such a pillar exceed 1.25m, the base of the
pillar shall not be less than 1.5 m in diameter.
2. In metalliferous mines where ore, 'float' and any other mineral are
to be worked, the height of the bench shall not exceed 6 m (under
special permission maximum up to 7.5 m), the breadth (width) of the
benches shall not be less than 6 m and the angle of slope should not
exceed 60° from the horizontal.
3. In coal mines the height of the benches shall not exceed 3 m,
width not less than the height and the angle of slope should not
exceed more than 45° from the horizontal.
4. In case of hard and competent overburden benches a maximum
bench height of 7.5 m, a minimum bench width 1.5 m (for lower height,
lower bench width may also be permitted) and angle of slope should
not be more than 75 from the horizontal. However in case of a coal
mine a minimum bench width of 1 m may be permitted.
5. The above 1 to 5 points are valid both for manual and
mechanized operation. However in a highly mechanized opencast
mines, the height of the benches are generally kept up to the digging
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

or excavation height of an excavator. Under soft to medium hard rock

condition when the well blasted rock/ore/coal falls down uniformly and
smoothly, the height of the bench may be permitted 3 m above the
digging height of the excavator employed in the bench.

The width of the benches shall not be less than the widest machine
plying on the bench plus 2 m more or 3 times the width of the dumper if
dumpers ply on the bench or the height of the bench whichever is
more, or the width of the benches shall be 5 times the length of the
largest machine working on the bench unless otherwise permitted by
the Regional Inspector of mines. If one way traffic is introduced over
the bench, the width may be reduced but not less than 2 times the
length of the largest machine working on the bench. At the final
operation during making the final pit slope. the width of the bench may
be reduced but not less than 3 m. Adequate dressing of the benches
are to be done if persons are to be employed within 5 m of the working
face.

The angle of slope of the spoil bank can be kept maximum up to 37.5°
from the horizontal. The spoil bank face shall not be retained by any
artificial means at an angle more than its natural angle of repose. If any
spoil bank exceeds 30 m in height, it shall be benched in such a
manner that the general overall slope of spoil does not exceed 33.7°
and height does not exceed 30 m. The toe of a spoil bank shall not be
nearer by less than its height to any public road, railway, public
buildings and other permanent structure which are not belonging to
the mines owner and a suitable fence shall be erected between the
toe of an active spoil bank and those of public roads, railways or public
structures to prevent any unauthorized person to approach the spoil
bank. No body should be permitted to approach the toe of an active
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spoil bank where he may be endangered from the material rolling

down the face."

SLOPE STABILITY

The importance of slope stability gained a considerable importance

in India during the last few years because the slope failures in many
opencast mines caused heavy losses of production, extra stripping
cost to remove land-slide material. reforming of benches, diversion
of haul roads, production delays, etc. Since heavy benefit including
saving of huge amount of money is obtained from the steepest
slope, the open pit designer now a days focusing on steep stable
slopes in running high- walls of mechanized opencast mines. In India
18% of the accidents in opencast mines occurs due to fall of sides
Hence due care is to be paid for the slope stability not only for the
working high-wall but also for the spoil dump benches. The stability
of slope is primarily governed by the strength properties of the slope
materials, fracture planes including their intensity, ground water
condition within the slope, geological structures, weathering effects.
ground vibration etc. As the excavation proceeds the vertical stress
reduces and the pre-existing horizontal stresses are induced
beneath the pit bottom and around the pit ends. This causes
opening of cracks/ joints with a subsequent reduction in the
cohesive and friction forces restraining the rock in place. The
presence of ground water and its flow through these distressed
zones reduces the effective normal force on potential failure planes.
Further depending of pit and the presence of geological
disturbances e.g. fault, fold, dykes, etc. the distressed zone will be
enhanced.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Circular and planar failure are the two basic failures occur in the
high-wall and spoil dump benches in weathered slope material in
India.

HIGHWALL SLOPE

Slope Failures

The angle of slope bench should be either equal or less than the
angle of repose of the bench rock. In moderately loose and friable
rock the dressing in the bank slope is necessary up to the angle of
repose of the rock to prevent overhanging and subsequent falling of
rock when the materials get loosened by the action of weather or
vibration of the heavy earth moving machinery. In competent rocks
angle of slope of the bench varies between 700 and 850. This slope
may be obtained by varying the inclination of the blast holes.
However, this slope angle also depends upon the plane of
weakness, orientation of bedding planes,etc. Slope failure is mainly
due to the slow process of rotational shear. mechanical properties of
rock (like cohesion, angle of internal friction, etc., pore water
pressure, seepage forces, tension cracks etc).

The height of the dragline benches may even go beyond 50m but in
Indian condition it is restricted within 40m. Common dragline bench
height starts from 30m (for draglines having bucket capacity 24m3
with a boom length 96m). The bench slope failure may be broadly
grouped into five categories which are as follows:

a. Planar failure: It occurs along the various types of discontinuities on

the bench scale, inter ramp scale and pit wall scale (e. g. major
fault)

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

b. Circular failure: This type of deep seated failures occur when a slope
is excavated in soil or soft rock formation in which the mechanical
properties are not dominated by clearly defined structural features
c. Wedge failure: It is due to two intersecting discontinuities. Large
scale wedge failure may occur in several benches .
d. Toppling failure: It is generally occurs in hard rock formations which
can form columnar structure separated by steeply dipping
discontinuities.
e. Failure due to sheared and decomposed rock: It may occur in
several benches.

BOX CUT

Opening up of open pits is done by an opening cut for the

development of first working bench. The opening cut is called the box
cut and slope of suitable gradient (steepest is advisable both technical
and economical point of view for transports, holding space and
minimizing the cost of excavation for deep pits) is necessary. The box
cut may be internal (located on the bench floor on one side of the pit).
It saves cost of excavation and suitable for deep pits since number of
benches in this case is more. Remember that excavation by external
means is extremely large and expensive) and external box cut is
suitable for shallow pits. Box cut is excavated initially down to the floor
level of the first bench from the surface. Thereafter an opening level
trench is extended from this opening cut to form the first bench. The
opening trench is narrow keeping due regards of the turning of the
machineries used for excavation and extends along or across the
quarriable limit depending on the type of the deposit. When the first
bench is sufficiently advanced, the box cut is oriented and extended
to the next lower bench keeping due regard of the sufficient amount of
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rooms for the approach road to the top (1st) bench and for opening
trench for the 2nd bench. This way a number of working benches are
developed and the width of the box cut should be sufficient enough to
diversify the approach road to all the benches. If number of benches
are developed from one opening cut, the cut should be started
enough away from the pit limit so that bottom bench can be reached
at the desired slope of the pit. This type of opening cut may be very
long and may be curved depending upon the shape and extent of the
deposit. For opening up in hilly deposit, a central trench cut is given
across the top level for the first bench or from one side in the same
contour level forming a length of face which will give the required
production rate.

Location of Box Cut

The location of the box cut depends upon the following factors:

• Minimum cost of haulage within the open-pit and outside the pit to
the desired place e.g. preparation plant, sidings. etc. or mineral and
overburden dump. However, if the place of mineral siding and
overburden dump is far apart. separate opening cuts one for mineral
and the other one for overburden is to be formed.
• If shifting of box cut is not necessary, it is to be located at the
boundary of the mineral deposit/property. In dipping deposit, this
boundary should be the mineral outcrops or where ratio of overburden:
ore is least, location of the box cut should be in the middle of the
boundary of the reserve for minimizing the haulage cost.
• In horizontal deposit, the box cut can be located in the middle of
any boundary depending on the location of the place of destination of
the overburden and mineral disposal. The opening trench in

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

continuation of the box cut offers two working faces of adequately

long for the desired production each level.
• The site of the box cut should be stable and free from geological
disturbances.
• The site should be at the rise side to guard against the flooding of the
mine.
• The site should be selected where the construction of approach road
is very convenient.
• The site should be selected preferably where the deposit has high
grade mineral to compensate the development cost.
• Location of the box cut should be such that it serves the purpose of
maximum mining area.

However, if the mining area is extensive, the total mining area to be

divided into sub-areas and they are to be opened up separately. Due
to the wider and deeper reach draglines are the most suitable
equipment for making a box cut.

Standing on the surface they can load materials from the box cut and
unload to the railway wagon.

• Excavators
• Generally, the selection of excavators depends mainly upon the
following factors:

• Method of stripping and disposal of overburden (over casting or

transportation of excavated waste).

• Diggability: This factor depends on the bulking factor,

competency, abrasivity, strength, flow property of rock,
fragmentation of rock, etc. The type and nature of rock like

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

surface soil, weathered rock, soft and hard rock, etc. play
important roles in digging characteristics of an excavator.

• Horizontal and vertical reach and reach below the grade.

• Operating condition and pit geometry.

• Maneuverability.

• Tonnage required (capacity) to be handled per unit time.

• Load bearing capacity of the floor rock.

• Power supplying system and arrangements.

• Blending requirement (use of number of small capacity machines

are better in this case).

• Continuous operation (e.g. bucket wheel excavator, continuous

surface miner, etc.) or discrete operation (e.g. shovel, dragline,
front end loader, rippers, scrapers, etc.).

• Surface topography.

• Use of the equipment for development purpose or excavation of

ore or mineral.

• Nature, type and size of the materials to be handled (e.g. dusty,

medium size, large blocky materials).

• Flexibility of operation.

• Requirement of assistance for loading by dumper, loader and

transporting by other auxiliary machineries like dumper or
conveyor, etc.

• Indigenous availability of the machines and spare parts.

• Cost of the machine and availability of the capital.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• Ease of maintenance.

• Statistics and machine reliability.

• Operating and maintenance cost.

• Secondary use of the excavator.

• Climatic conditions affected by heat, cold, rain, etc.

• Overall safety.

• Effects of Selecting Larger Size Equipment

• The following are the merits and demerits of selecting larger size
equipment:

• Productivity will increase.

• Operating and maintenance cost will decrease.

• Reduce the requirement of operating personnel.

• Pit geometry affected by the use of larger excavator, trucks and

other larger auxiliary equipment. Larger trucks need wider costly
road (for two-way traffic a wider road around 25m to 30m with a
clearance 2.5m to 3m in between the two trucks crossing each
other are necessary).

• Reduce requirement of number of machine units and hence

there will be less congestion of machines.

• Larger machine requires efficient operating and maintenance

facilities of equipment.

• A good wider, competent well-constructed bench floor and

haulage roads are essential to minimize the damage of tyres,
crawler track assembly, floor penetration, etc. A good

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maintenance facilities for roads and bench floor are also

essential.
• A proper survey is essential regarding the competency of ground
floor through which the heavy earth moving equipment will
move.
• Larger excavators need larger capacity haulage units and larger
auxiliary equipment to assist them.
• High capital investment is necessary to procure them.
• Factors Which Play During Purchasing of Equipment
• During purchasing any excavator or transporting equipment the
parameters should be considered in great depth are:

• Production and productivity.

• Cycle performance.

• Acceptance by the workman.

• Standardization.

• Climatic conditions like cold and hot weather.

• Fire proofness.

• Body configuration.

• Visibility.

• Operator’s comfort condition.

• Cost per unit of production.

• Physical availability.

• Life of the equipment and its component.

• Ease of maintenance.

• Inspection and repair.

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• Requirement of maintenance personnel and their availability.

• Workshop facilities and purchasing of special equipment for their

maintenance.

• After service facilities including spare parts by the supplier.

• Capital cost of the equipment.

• Operating and maintenance cost.

• Erection and dismantling cost.

• Freight and insurance cost.

• Availability and location.

• Spare parts and technical service back-up, etc.

• Selection of oversized machine should be always avoided, since

it will cause over-investment. Optimum and best-suited machine
should be purchased after thorough techno-economic discussion
with the manufacturer, investigation, and evaluation in a similar
conditioned surface mine where these types of machines are
deployed for a long time.

Shovel
• A shovel is an equipment which excavates the rock or ore by digging
from its operating base to upwards (stripping shovel in this case) and
dump it either on a dumper or railway wagon or over the spoil dump
for backfilling after swing itself within its limit. It is a highly productive
machine and capable to handle all types of ores, rocks ranging from
fine to very hard blocky lumps, has lower operating cost, higher
production and productivity etc. It requires lower power and has less
wire rope cost. It also requires less manpower to operate and requires
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

less surface preparation. It can also load in various mining conditions,

has longer life, wider availability, and can also do production by
staying in the inclined terrain. However, it has low maneuverability, low
flexibility, affected by climatic and watery conditions, bank sides, etc.
Shovel can be used in strip mining method (loading, swinging and
dumping of overburden material into the adjoining excavated area by
overcasting), in tandem operations (where 2 or more shovels are used
for rehandling of overburden successively). Shovel pull-back operation
which is a combination of a shovel and dragline for handling the
overburden.
Selection of Shovel
• Selection of a shovel is basically done by considering the factors like:

• Requirement of daily production.

• Type and quality of the material to be excavated:

o Total coal or ore reserve, geotechnical parameters of mineral body

or overburden rock. In the geotechnical parameter, the thickness,
compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength, abrasiveness, dip,
etc. of mineral body, coal and also overburden rocks are very
important besides stratigraphy condition, ground stability, presence of
contiguous seam, intrusion of hard bands, presence of faults, folds, and
other geological disturbances, ground water condition, etc.

• Bucket fill factor - larger shovel dig better than the smaller one.

• Swell factor.

• Working cycle time.

• Weight and maximum lump size of the materials to be

excavated.

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• Height of the bench and height of the cut (a shovel can dig
material in a bench of height more than 55m).

• Whether the shovel is to be worked out in the overburden or

mineral benches which are to be excavated directly.

• Whether it is to be used for production or casting overburden or

for reclamation purposes.

• Requirement of working clearance by a particular type and size

of shovel.

• Number of faces are to be worked.

• Nature of terrain, depth of the mine to be worked, size of the box

cut, size of the area where shovel will operate, etc.

• Capacity of the haulage equipment.

• Operating parameters like digging height, digging radius,

dumping height, dumping radius, etc. High capacity shovels have
larger digging height and radius and also they have larger
dumping radius, bucket size and capacity (generally for
excavation of ore bucket capacity below 15m³ with a height of
bench ranging from 5m to 18m are selected. For overcasting
bucket capacity of a shovel generally more than 15m³).

• Over all dimensions-rear end clearance, angle of boom

inclination, height of the excavator and height of the excavator
cabin.

• Availability of electric power supply.

• Working gradient - maximum gradient may be up to 12°

depending upon the type of shovels. Heavier shovel necessitates

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milder gradient (6° to 7°). Speed of the shovel increases with the
decrease in gradient.

• Drainage condition:

• Ground pressure - due to the bucket filling with digging, swinging

of the shovel and unloading of materials, average ground
pressure may increase 15-20 times. The maximum ground pressure
should not exceed the carrying capacity of the ground floor.
Ground pressure should be within 1.5 kg/cm² for softer floor
condition and 4 kg/cm² for other rock condition.

Rope shovel Hydraulic shovel

• Higher initial cost, longer life, • Lower initial cost, shorter life.
lower depreciation cost. • Resale value is usually poor.
• Usually have a good resale • Lower basic machine weight,
value. more mobile on-site
• Heavier basic machine depending on site
weight, less mobile on-site requirements.
depending on site • Very high capacity shovel as
requirements. per the rope shovel is yet to
• Very high capacity shovels be manufactured.
are available. • Light weight makes narrow
• Heavier weight calls for pads. It is essential to increase
wider heavier track pads to ground pressure to prevent
reduce ground pressure. the machine from pushing

• Very good performance itself away from the bank.

even in tough and abrasive • Poor performance in tough

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rock and also in dusty and abrasive rock and also in

environmental conditions. dusty environmental

• It is bulky, requires more conditions.

space to operate. • It is compact and requires less

• Reliability under heavy-duty space to operate.

condition is very good, in • Reliability under heavy-duty

pollution-free atmosphere conditions is less as compared
and high altitude the shovel to a rope shovel.
driven by electric drives • In pollution-free atmosphere
gives very good and at high altitude the
performance but efficiency shovel driven by electric drive
is less as compared to a gives the best performance
hydraulic shovel. under the same conditions.
• Selective excavation (if • It has a good selective
required) is poor in this case excavation capacity since it
since it has a poor stabilizing can nicely stabilize its bucket
capacity of the bucket to a in any horizontal and vertical
particular point. point.
• Penetration in the ground is • Penetration into the ground is
achieved by the achieved by the combination
combination of pushing of three forces e.g., bucket
force of the dipper arm and crowding, dipper arm
lifting motion of the bucket swinging, and boom lifting. It
with the help of the boom achieves good filling of the
(fixed to a particular angle) bucket. Cutting angle of the
of the shovel to achieve less bucket tip can be changed.
filling of the bucket as

Page 22 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

compared to a hydraulic Its digging force is very high.

shovel. Cutting angle of the • Prior blasting may not be
shovel is more or less required for softer and friable
constant. It has less digging strata conditions. Bucket fill
force. factor is very good.
• Prior blasting is required for • It can be used as a backhoe.
good diggability.
• In this case, power is
• Bucket fill factor is moderate. generated either by a diesel
• It cannot be used as a engine or by an electric
backhoe. motor which supplies power

• All diesel and all electric to a number of hydraulic

shovels come under this pumps via a gearbox system

category. for crowd, hoist, swing, travel,

etc., mechanisms.
• Operation is limited in the
steep gradient. Dozer or • Steeper gradients may also

wheel loaders are required be negotiated. Generally,

to assist them for dozer or wheel loaders except

accumulating the muck for extreme conditions are not

piles. employed to assist them for

accumulating the muck piles.
• Requirement of self-
movement power is more • Requirement of self-

because of its bulkiness and movement power is less

heavier weight. because of its less bulkiness

and less weight compared to
• Utilization of power is poor to
a rope shovel.
moderate.
• Utilization of power is highly
• Operation is jerky and cycle

Page 23 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

time is more. efficient.

• Larger machine • Operation is smooth and

dimensions—front-end cycle time is less.
geometry, center of gravity • Shorter front-end geometry,
further from center of the center of gravity closer to
rotation, machine needs the base of the machine, calls
more counterweight. for less counterweight.
• Higher weight ratio to • Lower weight ratio to bucket
bucket capacity contributes capacity, less resistance to
to absorption of shock shock loading, contributes to
loading, contributing to shorter working life.
longer life.
• Lower resistance to shock and
• High resistance to shock and fatigue mainly due to welded
fatigue due to high construction and non-
protection from cast steel absorbent hydraulic
construction and rope operation.
operation.
• Boom angle can change
• Boom remains at a constant during digging, can assist with
angle during digging and bucket penetration.
only limited assistance to
• Bucket controlled by wristing
penetration effort is
cylinders allows tooth
necessary.
direction to be changed
• Bucket fixed to handle, during digging, wrist action fills
tooth direction cannot be the bucket with less time in
changed during digging, the bank, less tooth wear.
bucket spends more time in
• Arm connected to the end of

Page 24 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

bank to fill, more tooth wear. the boom allows greater

• End of boom represents digging heights.

maximum height to which • Bucket at maximum height still

the bucket can be raised. has high digging power at

• Bucket at maximum height tooth point.

has low digging power at • Wider bucket reduces

tooth point. operator visibility when rock

• Narrow bucket gives good loading.

visibility and aids careful rock • Wider bucket has less swell
loading with widely varying effect on loaded material.
lump size. • Bottom opening doors are
• Narrow bucket has more available usually at reduced
swell effect on loaded capacity. Maximum capacity
material. normally forward tip type

• Due to the bottom opening which has adverse effects

door in the standard during discharging load into

equipment, rock loading has trucks. Extra cost is required to

less impact on truck bodies truck repairs and their working

and suspensions. life becomes shorter.

• Level floor clean-up is • Level crowd permits better

limited. floor clean-up.

• Steering and movement are • Steering and movement are

difficult. less difficult.

• Under identical conditions • Shovel operated by the

noise and vibration levels electric drive has a very less

are higher as compared to noise and vibration effect.

Page 25 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

a hydraulic shovel. • Efficiency of power utilization

• Efficiency of power utilization is higher.

is lower under identical • In this case, the cost of

conditions. maintenance is cheaper but

• Although maintenance the requirement of the

cost is higher due to high- degree of maintenance is

priced spare parts, the higher as compared to a rope

requirement of the degree shovel.

of maintenance is less as
compared to a hydraulic
shovel.

A comparison among diesel and electric shovel

Diesel Shovel Electric Shovel

• Applicable for doing a • Applicable for doing any

particular work for a shorter work from shorter to longer
duration. duration.

• It is used where electric • It is used where electric

power is not available, i.e., power is available.
in remote locations. • It is less mobile equipment.
• It is very highly mobile Its mobility depends upon
equipment. the shifting of switches,

• It handles comparatively transformers, cables, etc.,

smaller sizes and hard or which are very

abrasive fragmented ore or cumbersome processes.

Page 26 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

overburden rock. • It is capable of handling a

• A little bit complicated in huge amount of blocky,

construction having less hard, and abrasive

reliability as compared to fragmented ore or

an electric shovel. overburden rock.

• Machine available time is • Very simple and robust in

moderate. construction, having very

high reliability.
• It has good digging
characteristics. • Machine available time is
very high provided there is
• All diesel rope shovels have
no interruption of power.
a diesel engine that supplies
power to the crowd • It has moderate digging

mechanism, hoist characteristics.

mechanism, travel • All electric rope shovels

mechanism, swing have an A.C. induction
mechanism, etc. In motor, swing generator,
hydraulic shovels, power is hoist generator, crowd
generated by the diesel generator, exciter, etc., to
engine, which supplies operate the swing
power to a number of mechanism, hoist
hydraulic pumps via a mechanism, crowd
gearbox system for crowd, mechanism, travel
hoist, swing, travel, etc., mechanism, etc. In
mechanisms. hydraulic shovels, power is

• It has a high operating and generated by an electric

maintenance cost and motor, which supplies

power to a number of

Page 27 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

shorter life as compared to hydraulic pumps via a

an electric shovel. gearbox system for crowd,

• All diesel shovels have less hoist, swing, travel, etc.,

digging capability below mechanisms.

the floor as compared to an • It has low operating and

electric hydraulic shovel. All maintenance costs and a
diesel shovels also do not longer life.
have any "wrist action" and • All electric shovels have less
hence more problems may digging capability below
be faced during digging the floor compared to an
unblasted toes. electric hydraulic shovel. All
• Noise and vibration levels electric shovels also do not
are more. have any "wrist action" and

• Cycle time is more. hence more problems may

be faced during digging
• Utilization of power is
unblasted toes. Vibration
poor.
and noise levels are less.

• Cycle time is less as

compared to a diesel
shovel.

• Utilization of power is
moderate.

Page 28 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

OPERATING PARAMETERS

(i) Dumping (discharge) height (maximum) - At a particular boom

angle, it is the vertical distance between the level (where a shovel
rests) and the bottommost point of the bucket under the tipping
condition while the boom and all other accessories attached to the
boom are at their full extended position under that condition. Higher
boom angle higher would be the dumping height for a particular
shovel. A dumping height of around 46 m is common nowadays.

(ii) Cutting (digging) height (maximum) - At a particular boom angle, it

is the vertical distance between the level (where a shovel rests) and the
topmost point of the bucket (tip of the teeth) when the boom and all
other accessories attached to the boom are at their full extended
position under that condition. Higher the boom angle higher would be
the cutting height for a particular shovel. A cutting height of 51m or
more is not uncommon today.

(iii) Dumping (discharge) radius (maximum) - At a particular boom

angle, it is the horizontal distance between the vertical swing axis of the
main body of the shovel and the vertical centre line of the bucket
when the boom and all other accessories attached to the boom are at
their full extended position under that condition. Higher the boom
angle lower would be the dumping radius of a particular shovel. A
dumping radius of 65m or more is possible at present.

(iv) Maximum digging radius-At a particular boom angle it is the

maximum horizontal distance between the tip of the bucket (tip of the
teeth) and the vertical swing axis of the shovel. Higher the boom angle
lower would be the digging radius. A digging radius of 10m or more is
quite common at present.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

(v) Bucket fill factor = x 100

It depends upon the degree of fragmentation of the mineral body,

rocks or physical characteristics of the rock or ore i.e. the size and
shape of ore or overburden rock, stickiness, watery condition,
diggability, soft, loose and fragile characteristics, and also on the size of
the bucket.

Bucket fill factor for the following materials are as follows:

Material Bucket Fill Factor

For easily digging rocks like sand, loam, clay etc. 0.75 to 1.0

Average digging rock like well blasted rocks 0.55 to 0.75

Difficult digging rocks like bulky, irregular shaped or rugged

0.35 to 0.55
rock which is very difficult to scoop up

(vi) Swell factor=

It indicates the amount of increase in volume of a rock mass in

percentage after expanding due to loosening by digging action or by
blasting. Poor fragmentation due to blasting will increase the amount of
swell since heavy amount of voids will be present in between the
boulders.

(vii) Bucket Factor = Fillability x (Swell Factor)-1

Fillability-Because of the slope line in front of the bucket, the struck

capacity of the bucket is reduced to some extent depending upon the
size of bucket and the design. It is determined by the field observation
and experience. The fill ability of the bucket is expressed in percentage.
It is always less than 1. Reciprocal of the swell factor is taken into
account for calculating the bucket factor.
Page 30 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

(viii) Swing Factor-Standard cycle time of a shovel is based on its 90°

swing for loading. This cycle time will increase or decrease depending
upon the increasing and decreasing angle of swing (a shovel can
generally rotate at 4 to 5 RPM). So in such a case a certain factor is to
be multiplied to correct the shovel cycle time. This factor is known as
the swing factor for which a standard chart is provided by the
manufacturer. This swing factor is at 90° and it increases or decreases
depending upon the increasing or decreasing the swing angle
respectively corresponding to that standard 90° angle of swing.

(ix) Cycle Time-It is the total time taken by a shovel to complete one
full cycle of operation starting from the crowding operation into the
face to swinging, dumping and again coming back to the face for
crowding operation.

Total cycle time = Crowding (digging, loading, hoisting) time + swinging

time towards the truck + dumping time on the truck + swinging back for
crowding operation.

In the shovel operation, some amount of delays are always present

which include the followings-

• Moving the equipment of proper positioning,

• Delay due to non-availability of the haulage unit,

• Floor cleaning by the bulldozer for the movement of the shovel,

• Dressing overhanging ledges in the high wall and also blending

operation for quality control,

• Improper spotting of the haulage unit and hence poor unloading,

• Delay due to fatigue of the operator, unskilled operator, etc.

• Due to poor blasting of rock when big boulders are formed,

Page 31 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• (xiii) During calculation, the capacity of a shovel, the following

points are also worth to mention:
• a) Spotting time of dumper - If a skilled dumper operator and
spotters are employed, then the dumper spotting time will be
around 20 to 30 seconds. Spotting can be done on one side or on
both sides of the shovel. In case of double spotting, the spotting
time tends or becomes equal to zero.
• b) Total loading time = Number of passes required by a shovel to
fill a truck × Cycle time by the shovel.
• c) Number of pass =

• Tonnage per pass by the shovel= Capacity of the bucket ×

Bucket fill factor × Bucket factor × Bank density.
• d) Dumping (discharge) time - Depending upon the operational
condition, dumping time may vary from 50 seconds to around 2
minutes.
• e) Cycle time of a dumper = Spotting time + Loading time + Travel
time with load + Spotting time to discharge + Discharge time
(either in the stockpile or in the bunker or in the crusher plant) +
Travel time with no load + Waiting time for loading (this waiting
time may be reduced to zero if the number of dumper required
per shovel is perfectly matched).
• Broadly, shovels are divided into two categories, which are as
follows:
• (a) Rope Shovel (b) Hydraulic Shovel.
• Both the diesel engine and electric motors are used as prime
movers for both the shovels, although all diesel and all electrical
shovels fall in the category of "Rope Shovel".
• Rope Shovel (Dipper Shovel)
Page 32 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• It contains the following main units:

• (a) All diesel operated rope shovels contain the following main
units: diesel engine as prime mover, crowd mechanism, hoist
mechanism, travel mechanism, swing mechanism, front
attachments, undercarriage unit, control units, etc.
• (b) All electric motor operated rope shovels contain the following
main units: motor generator set (containing an a.c. induction
motor, swing generator, crowd generator, hoist generator, etc.)
crowd mechanism, hoist mechanism, travel mechanism, swing
mechanism, undercarriage unit, pneumatic control system for
various braking operations, etc.
. In the rope shovel, a bucket is rigidly attached to
the end of the dipper stick. The dipper stick can move forward or
backward. It is supported by a pinion and is held by a cable to
the bucket side. The pinion and rack on the underside of the
dipper stick is in constant mesh which are attached in proper
position on a heavy structural boom. The lower end of the boom
is pivoted with a turntable; while the top end is held in position by
means of a boom hoist cable. The superstructure or the turntable
carry the operator's control room, mechanism for hoisting,
crowding, swinging, and traveling, etc. of the shovel. The crawler
mechanism supports the whole shovel unit and also provides the
traveling and steering motion of the shovel. Shovels may be rope
type or non-rope type and bucket size varies from 0.3 m³ to 20 m³.

It is already mentioned that a rope shovel is incapable to

do clean-up works. Hence a bulldozer is necessary to assist it.
Compared to a front-end loader, a shovel has a very high
breakout force for crowding action. It can dig smoothly down the
Page 33 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

grade to about 50% of the length of the dipper stick and up to

about 65% of its boom height in the case of rope shovel. Whereas
in the case of hydraulic shovel, the below-grade digging is about
the full length of the dipper stick and up to grade digging is
about the full length of the boom height. A shovel can handle
coarse materials safely in the face and unload them over the
dumper more efficiently by swinging. Hence it requires less space
for its operation. It has a very good life span (around 10 to 20
years) and very good resale value. But a shovel is a very
expensive piece of equipment and requires higher-priced
backup machinery compared to a front-end loader. It has a
higher operating cost compared to a front-end loader. It is also
less mobile

Front Attachment of a Dipper Shovel:-

The front attachments of a dipper

shovel consist of a bucket (mostly bottom discharge type), a
dipper shaft (in 2 piece member), a boom (in 2 piece member),
various sheaves, pulleys, hoist line, boom line, retract line, crowd
line, trip line, etc. The massive steel boom bottom end is
connected with the front deck of the shovel and the top end is
provided with two sheaves for hoist line and pulleys for the 4-part
boom line. In the center slot of the 2-piece boom member, a
saddle block and dipper drum are provided as the shipper shaft.
The saddle block (which is the dipper stick driving mechanism)
and the shipper shaft provide positive crowding or retracting
action with the help of the rack and pinion arrangement. They
also provide better control, less failure, and reduce the
maintenance cost. Hoisting of the boom is governed by the 4-
Page 34 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

part boom line. One end of the rope is anchored with the hoist
drum and passes around the hoist pulley attached with the 'A'
frame, which is mostly attached to the left-hand side of the
shovel body. The rope passing from the pulley of the 'A' frame
passes round the vertical pulley attached with the left-hand side
of the frame passing via the round right and side pulley attached
to the upper end and horizontal pulley attached to the right and
left-hand side of the 'A' frame. A brake and cone clutch control
the rotation of the boom hoist drum. By the gravity action, the
boom is lowered down with strict control of the brake
mechanism. But during hoisting, the boom clutch is engaged with
the hoist drum mechanism and the boom is lifted up at a desired
angle. In the bucket hoist mechanism hoist cable passes round
the right hand side vertical hoist sheave and finally anchored with
the boom passing via pulley attached with the bucket and left
hand side hoist sheave.

The boom is made in 2 sections. The lower section is single

and welded construction having 2 side girders and 2 cross girders
with cast steel boom feet and shipper - shaft bearings welded
into the structure. The end of the lower boom section is tapered
and pivoted on the shipper shaft bearing structure. The lower end
of this unit is connected with the cross members. A cast steel
boom point sheave is attached at its upper portion. At its lower
end there is provision for a centre of the revolving frame. The
upper boom section is constructed by 2 fabricated H-beams and
reinforced by suitable hinge connection to an extension of
shipper - shaft bearings whereas at its upper end there are the
attachments for the of which carries the bucket. At the bottom of
Page 35 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

the handle a key is provided which engages the keyways in the

saddle- bridge strand suspension arrangement of the total boom.
The dipper handle is a heavy structural steel member lower end
block liners through which connection is made to the handle-
stabilizing device. For equalizing the crowd lines a handle the
bucket is made of alloy steel casting with the hinges and the
latch-bar guides are integrally casted. The latch-bar stop
arrangement is mounted on a large vertical pin. The standard
type buckets are of welded construction. The door of keeper is
the cast integral with the dipper front. The tripping of dipper is
controlled by a magnetic valve operated trip mechanism. The
saddle block accommodates an air-actuated type cylinder
which operates the dipper latch by means of rope. It is operated
by a thumb latch switch placed on the crowd master controller.
Presently the flood lighting system not only mounted in front of the
machine, but also they are provided over the boom.

The large diameter shipper shaft mounted over the lower

boom structure carries the saddle block. The alloy steel casted
saddle block which has bronze-bushed hubs and renewable
liners, guides the dipper handle. A device is fitted with the saddle
block which retards the rotation of handle and make tighten the
rope in case slight slackness developed in the hoist rope during
the crowding action. On the saddle-block hubs large diameter
sheaves for the crowd and retract cables are mounted. A key at
the lower part of the dipper handle engages a keyway in the
liners and these rotate along with the movement of the handle.
Liner segments at the forward end of the saddle block have the
rack-a-track arrangement which engages with a pinion placed in
Page 36 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

between the shipper drums. It provides resistance to the rotation

of handle through a spring loaded friction brakes. The sprocket is
rotated in the either direction by the crowd-retract chain drive by
a boom foot drum and crowd as well as retract cables are nicely
controlled by the same.

Hoisting Unit:-

The hoist motor is connected to a drum (split lagging type with

machine-turned groove) via the gearbox unit. The motor is connected
to the primary pinion shaft by a smoothly engaging electrically
controlled, air-actuated clutch. In small capacity shovel the clutch also
acts as a flexible coupling. While hoisting, the hoist motor acts as a
motor but while lowering it acts as a regenerative brake. The hoist
brake is mounted over the primary pinion shaft is of spring-set air
released and electrically controlled and it is used to make the hoist
drum in fixed position when desired and shall be 'on' position as soon as
the power is cut off.

Crowding Unit

In a smaller capacity shovel, it consists of a cable drum connected to a

motor via. the gearbox- unit. It, is located at the forward end of the
revolving frame casting. Rotation of the cable drum in one direction
causes the handle and dipper out and rotation in the opposite
direction causes handle to retract. Crowd ropes are wedged-
anchored at the rear of the handle on the stop casting via. a half-
sheave segment positioned by a large diameter screw for the purpose
of adjustment of crowd and retract ropes. The loop of the crowd rope
passes over a half-sheave at the middle of the crowd drum under the

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

drum gear rim. The motor is provided with spring set, air released type
automatic brake and air-actuated overload slipping clutch.

Both the crowd and retract mechanism is governed either by chain or

cable. In cable type system, the rope attached with the foot drum (it
has two parts), passes round the shipper drum and pulley attached at
the rear end of the dipper stick wrapped and anchored to the left
hand part of the foot drum after passing via the shipper drum. Similarly
the retract line takes off from the left hand side drum and anchored to
the front side of the dipper stick after passing via the shipper drum.
During rotation of foot drum in the forward direction, the crowding rope
coils in the drum, causing dipper stick to move in the forward downhill
direction for digging (crowding) and pull down the retract rope which
will be uncoiled to balance the system. During reverse rotation, the
crowding rope will be released whereas the retract rope be coiled in
the foot drum; pulling the dipper stick up (retract).
In the chain type of crowding mechanism, shipper shaft
accommodates a pinion (sprocket wheel) which intermeshes with the
rack embedded on the dipper stick. The rotation of the pinion either in
the clockwise or anticlockwise causes the crowding and retracting
action of the dipper stick.

Ballast Housing

The ballast housing is provided at the rear end of the machine body
and the capacity of such housing depends the capacity of the shovel.
Generally pig iron or steel scraps are used as the ballasting materials.

Bucket and Teeth

For high capacity shovel the buckets are casted into one piece by
manganese steel, open at the top and close at the bottom by a
Page 38 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

hinged type door. The smaller capacity shovel buckets are generally
welded steel box structure, which are lighter in weight. The lip of the
bucket is provided with replaceable four to six number manganese
steel teeth to negotiate maximum abrasion during digging. The life of a
bucket teeth are only 60 to 80 hours in hard sand stone but after doing
some preventive measures their life may be improved. The preventive
measures are as following-

• When one side of it is heavily worn out, it should immediately be

opened and refitted in reverse position,
• If they are heavily worn out, then they may be rebuild to their
original position by first welding with steel followed by welding with high
tensile manganese steel on the top surface. This welding method will
again increase the life of the teeth by another 50% of the total original
life.
• In case a highly abrasive rock is to be encountered, the top
surface of the teeth may be welded with high abrasive resistant
tungsten-chromium-cobalt alloys. It will increase the life of a bucket
teeth in many fold.

Generally tooth holder sockets are welded with the lip of the bucket
where teeth's shanks are inserted and fastened by a removable pin.
Teeth should be strong enough to withstand the entyre forces
produced by the shovel. Dull teeth should be removed immediately
otherwise it will unnecessary waste fuel energy, reduce diggability and
also increase the maintenance cost of the shovel.

The bottom cross sectional area of a bottom discharge type bucket is

large as compared to the cross sectional area at the top. Presently with
evolution of hydraulic shovel, the bottom discharge buckets are

Page 39 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

steadily replaced by the side discharge or overturning type bucket for

doing selective mining and also for providing the advantage of 'Wrist
Action'. In most of the bucket, welding matrix are provided both inside
and outside of the bucket. In case in any part excessive wear is
visualized, that portion may be reinforced by welding manganese steel
strip. The door of the bottom discharge type bucket is kept close with
the help of a latch bar into the latch holder by the gravity action while
the teeth of the bucket is in horizontal position. But during unloading,
when the teeth of the bucket is kept in the vertical position and the
latch bar is pulled out from the latch holder by a trip cable, the door
opens by it's own heavy weight as well as load on it and material
discharge onto the haulage unit.

Shovel Rope

During shovel operation ropes of the rope shovel are subjected to

severe shock loads on it due to heavy load, various to and fro motion,
etc. They are also subjected to bending stresses by sharp bending on
pullies, wear due to rope which friction with rock and also corrosion
fatigue due to exposure to the atmosphere. Beside these hitting by
external objects, manufacturing defects, bad quality, etc. impair the
life of a rope. A time comes when a rope breaks, which may causes
severe accidents to both man and machine and a huge amount of
time will be lost to replace the cable. A wire on inspection shows the
sign of thinning of the top surface wires or their breakage and show a
sign of expiry of life, should be changed immediately during
maintenance.

Generally the life of a good rope is many hundreds of hours. Use of

torque converter will increase the life of a rope to some extent.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Prime Movers

The power is supplied to the shovel either by diesel engine or by a. c.

electric motor. For smaller capacity shovel generally one diesel engine
or one electric motor is provided. The power is transmitted from them to
all the crowding, hoisting, swinging and propelling mechanism via fluid
coupling gearboxes, clutch system etc. 'V' type diesel engines are
generally used with improve fuel system to control the speed of the
engine depending upon the requirements during crowding, hoisting,
swinging, traction, etc. In high horse power engine for enhancing
maximum power efficiency and also to work at high altitude 'Super
Charger' or 'Turbo Charger' are generally provided.

A 'Supercharger' is simply a blower type device which forces air at high

pressure into the combustion cylinder. This way it supplies enough
quantity of oxygen which present in the air into the cylinder for burning
more amount of fuel to enhance more power with the same engine.
Because of the suction stroke by the piston in the cylinder and also
pumping action by the supercharger the atmospheric air will flow inside
the cylinder at high velocity and will be pushed further by the
atmospheric air itself.

A "Turbocharger' is a device which incorporates a set of turbine vanes

and is driven by the high velocity exhaust into the engine at a high
velocity discharge from the engine. Because of the rotation of the
vanes at a very high speed (around 1400 to 1600 rpm) air forces into
the engine at high velocity. The exhaust gas channels through the
nozzles for increasing the velocity of gas which thrust the vanes with
high force for producing high R.P.M. The output of the individual
cylinder are synchronized together for smoothening the action. The

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

whole process will create a little bit back pressure but it's magnitude is
far less as compared to the inlet pressure. In this way the waste energy
of the exhaust gas is utilized to increase the efficiency of the
combustion engine which will definitely increase the power. This
exhaust gas also assist in increasing compression. One side of the
turbocharger is continuously in touch with the hot exhaust gas which
heated it up and the other side is in contact with the incoming air
which cools down the same. So the engine is to be remain idle for a
few minutes after doing a heavy work to cool down the turbocharger.
It is lubricated by the lubricating oil supplied automatically by the crank
case of the engine.

Turbo chargers are also incorporated in the diesel engine of various

heavy earth moving machines.

The diesel engine cylinder is cooled down by the oil cooling nozzles. In
high capacity shovel high voltage around 3.3 KV or 6.6 KV is supplied to
an A. C. squirrel cage induction motor which drives several D. C.
generator. The generator in turn supplies power to several motors to
perform. the different operations like crowding, hoisting, swinging,
propelling, etc. Most of the electric shovels are controlled by the Ward-
Leonard control system. The electric shovels are cheaper than a diesel
shovel, highly efficient, easy to control, maintain and repair,
maintenance cost is less, easy and quick to start and stop and also
highly reliable.

In a smaller capacity electric shovel an A.C. motor driven generator set

is provided for supplying power to the high peak duty D.C. motors for
swinging, hoisting and crowding operations.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

For excitation of the motor generator set, forced auxiliary ventilation of

all the motors, etc. separate squirrel cage induction motors are
provided. Auto transformer starting is used in the motor-generator set.
Regenerative type braking system is used to all the crowd, swing and
hoist motors. An auxiliary transformer is also provided in the machine for
supplying medium voltage to the auxiliary motors for exciter, generator,
air compressor, auxiliary fan and low- voltage supply for lighting system.
The air compressor supplies air to operate various clutches and brakes.
The collector rings are generally provided below the revolving frame
and takes current from heavy duty shoes located on the base. The
collector rings are well designed, properly insulated and have sufficient
capacity. The cable entry box is of a very high capacity having bell-
mouth gland. The master controller for controlling the speed and
direction of rotation of each motor is placed at the operator's cab.

Under Carriage Unit

It consist mainly the main body, turntable and crawler track assembly. It
supports the whole machine weight and assists traveling of the
machine, controlling, steering, stabilizing the machine with out-rigger
unit (if present) as well as by ballast chamber (ballasts are kept into it),
assists erection and repair work with the help of crane gantry (optional)
attached on the revolving deck, etc.

Crawler track assembly provides better stability, grater crowding force,

lower ground bearing pressure (around 0.5 to 4 kg/cm3). All the crawler
tracks are presently independently propelled and their total number in
a shovel varies from 2 to 8 depending upon the weight, size and type of
the shovel. The steering is carried out by crawler unit/units in one side
and declutching the unit/units in the other side with the help of

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

clutches and brakes. This action should be done by stopping the

movement of the shovel, keeping the body in locking condition so that
it cannot carried out by providing power to the swing and also keeping
the digging lock under locking condition. Larger capacity machines
are mounted over four separate crawler units positioned in each comer
and each having two endless track belts. This is done to control the
mobility of the machine and to reduce the pressure over the ground. To
control the undulation, the machine is mounted over the crawler track
with the help of four leveling jacks. The track belt made by the number
of dentical steel shoes. They are made endless by fastening with steel
pins. Wedge shape projections are casted over the surface of the belt
which are to be gripped by the bull wheel and idler and also the belt is
supported and centered by the track rollers. Width and length of the
crawler track varies depending upon the load and the working
condition. Wider tracks are very good to lower ground bearing
pressure, increasing machine stability but they are expensive, heavy,
difficult during steering and is subjected to severe twisting stresses
particularly in the undulated terrain. Longer crawler tracks increase
machine stability and they are generally used for heavy load condition.
As the bull wheel rotates the teeth will mesh with each shoe under and
ahead of it and pushes the track belt and the idler forward. In higher
capacity shovel crawler tracks are individually powered.

The crawler track assembly consists of steel crawler belts supported by

a number of idlers held- on the truck frame and driven by a bull-wheel.
The bull-wheels are made of alloy steel castings with lugs to engage
the link castings. It is driven either by an independent motor unit or by a
hydraulic prime mover through the reduction gearing box. In one of the
versions the crawler steel belt is driven by the hoist motor through an
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

electrically controlled air-actuated clutch mechanism, which is a

duplicate of one used for hoisting purpose. The motor is connected to
a combined splined shaft via. the said clutch. The crawler belt is made
of flat shoes hinged and pinned together at their ends. In case of small
capacity shovel, the pitch and width of the links are 370mm and 1.07m
respectively. Diameter of the bull wheel is 1.05m. In one of the smaller
capacity shovel model multi-jaw clutches are provided on the
intermediate shafts of both the wheel axle for simultaneous or
independent operation of the crawler track assemblies. The steel belt
moves over the bull-wheel and passes around the idler sprocket and
rollers. A screw-type jack is provided to tighten the slack belt by
adjusting the position of the take-up unit which is guided in the crawler
track frame unit. One end of a steel sleeve is connected to the centre
of the truck frame and the other end is rigidly attached to the revolving
frame. This sleeve is bored to accommodate bearings for the vertical
propelling shaft. Operation. of the crawler track unit including the
control of the steering clutches, locking of the crawler belt, etc. are
governed from the operator's cab. Steering controlling is done by the
manipulation of both the steering clutches and the brakes.

Crawler tracks support the main frame which contains a heavy

swinging mechanism, counterweight platform, power unit (containing
A. C. motor, hoist generator, swing generator, crowd generator, field
generator), distribution box, transformer, motor and gearing system for
hoisting, crowding, swinging, compressor for controlling system, fan
operator's cabin with all controls and electric switches for proper
controlling, steering, propelling, etc. The idler sprocket can be adjusted
for tightening the track belt.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

The revolving unit is built on a heavy steel bed supported by rollers

which rest on a turn table. The turn table carries out the rotational
motion. The turn table is mounted on a bull gear through a ball race
which rotates by rotating a gear intermeshing with it. The gear is
controlled by a set of bevel gears and clutches to enable the rotation
of turn table either in clockwise or anticlockwise direction by respective
clockwise and anticlockwise motor motion. The heavy shovels are
generally provided with two swing gears which are independently
driven by two motors one for each gear after suitably reducing the
speed by reduction gearing system. Now-a-days magneto torque
clutches are widely used in the power transmission system of the
swinging mechanism."

The machine main body mounted over the revolving unit is welded
construction (for smaller capacity shovel), or number of welded
constructed units are bolted and/or riveted together to the main body.

The out rigger units (optional) are operated by the hydraulic pistons
and generally provided at the rear end of the machine. It is used to
stabilize the machine with the ground to withdraw the machine when
crawler tracks are fastened with the muck and also to lift the back side
of the machine during maintenance, repair of the track and other
miscellaneous job leveling the machine, etc.

Magneto-torque

This may be considered as a 'magnetic coupling' which provide

smooth power system and also control speed of a rotating system. It
has high alloy steel fabricated inner and outer rotating members. The
inner member is housed inside the outer member separated by an air
gap. The outer member having sealed electrical winding rotates

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continuously by an A. C. motor or a diesel engine. The inner member

consists of a circular steel rim. When the current is applied to the
winding of the outer member, it is excited and produces magnetic
field. Because of this reason a voltage is induced in the steel rim of the
inner member and an eddy current flows in the rim. The inner member
thereafter starts rotating in the same direction as the outer member.
Higher the flow of D. C. current in the coil of the outer member higher
would be the intensity of the magnetic field and hence it will enhance
the rotational speed of the inner member. The r.p.m. of the inner
member also depends upon the load on it. This magentotorque
supplies power without friction on outer members. The output
characteristics of the system can be changed by changing the position
of the controller which will energizes the coil of reverse unit and act as
a smooth brake to stop the rotating body. This is widely used in the hoist
mechanism in all electric shovel and also in swinging mechanism.
Operation and Efficiency of Shovel:-

The shovel should be kept in the safe distance from the face taking due
care against the caving of the ledges the front end rake of which get
damages in the faster manner and also cycle time increases. This may
also cause less from the high wall. The shovel should not be kept far
way from the face. Otherwise it will require longer dipper reach,
loading in the bucket to prevent destabilization of the shovel body.
Teeth of the bucket should be optimum in size and face. The bucket
thereafter is lowered down until the teeth orient in horizontal position
when the latch bar of the heavy sharp enough to dig well into the
bank. With the help of hoist and crowd mechanism the shovel is to be
swung to the the saddle block till the bucket teeth touch the foot of the
bank. The hoist mechanism moves the bucket forwards and bucket
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

door will be held securely in the latch holder. The crowd mechanism
moves the dipper stick downward through downward and the crowd
mechanism control the depth and angle of digging. Bucket should
never be crowded very deep after a little hoisting to the required
height it is to be swung over the truck or railway wagon which are to be
lined up into the material which will delay the hoisting time. When the
bucket will be hoisted up it will be totally filled up an with the arc of
swing and as close to the shovel but at a safer distance. After slight
crowding and releasing hoist cable. little bit,the bucket is placed in
proper position over the haulage unit. As soon as the trip cable is
pulled, the door of the bucket will open which will discharge the
loaded material over the haulage unit. In case the high shovel. After
loading is over the bucket is to be retracted slightly and there after is to
be swung back to the digging wall is very hard and digging is not very
easy, the face rocks are to be dislodged with the help of empty bucket
of the position to repeat the cycle of operation. Shovels should always
be moved over dry floor condition.

If wet and sticky floor is there they should be encountered by dry fills or
putting wooden sleeper or steel plates over them. It is always desirable
that a shovel should be operated smoothly and most effectively as per
the guidelines given by the manufacturer of the machine. Direct
excavation of soft rocks increases the efficiency of shovel because of
higher diggability, more stable benches, formation or presence of less
amount of lumpy boulders, selecting a definite boom angle for
achieving a particular digging and dump height, digging and dumping
radius, shifting of the shovel after cutting single or double slices
(thickness of slice is around 0.3m to 0.8 m of more) in the faces, etc. In
this case the normal longitudinal cuts of width is around 1.6 times the
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

maximum digging radius of the shovel and is very good for truck rail
transport system. But sometimes due to some factors the size of the cuts
may be designed narrow or wide to increase the efficiency of the
shovel.

The following precautions should be adopted during loading

operations:

• A driver of any truck should not enter or leave his cab;

• The loaded bucket of any shovel or loader should not be
traversed over the driver's cab of a truck or other motor vehicle;
• All persons should keep clear of the area between the loading
unit and the mine face and the area traversed by the loading bucket
during loading operations;
• All rocks that are too large to be handled safely should be broken
before loading and transport equipment should be loaded in a manner
to minimize spillage during haulage.

Presently a shovel have a bucket capacity of around 200 m3. The

largest size shovel may have a weight around 14000 tonne and total
power more than 22000 kW whereas the production is around 17000
tonne per hour (if the density of the rock is taken around 2.5 t/m3).
Propelling speed of the shovel is around 1 to 3.5 km/hour. Efficiency of
a shovel may be improved with the following practices-

• Using the maximum size of the bucket as per the capacity of

shovel
• By selecting the appropriate height of the bench according to
the height of the cut. Higher height bench will result caving of rock or
ore from the top of the bench and hamper the shovel operation. So
height of the bench should be equal to the maximum digging height of

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the shovel to control the slope angle and the tendency of caving in the
face. If the height of the bench is very small as compared to the
maximum dipper reach, the bucket will be filled up with many cutting
run over the face. It will increase the bucket loading time and hence
the capacity of the shovel will also reduce accordingly.
• HYDRAULIC SHOVEL-

Hydraulic shovels are slowly replacing the conventional rope shovels.

Because of their higher productivity, higher efficiency, higher machine
availability, smoother and easier control, possibility of application in
both the pushing and pulling forces, efficient, smooth and controlled
digging and sumping, faster loading cycle. possessing fewer parts as
compared to a conventional rope shovel, less maintenance cost, low
down time, possibility of continuous health monitoring system, less
bulkiness and weight compare to a conventional shovel, ability to
selective mining at any desired horizon, ability to dress the high wall
(face) etc. hydraulic shovels are gaining much popularity in modica
surface mining operation. Some of the hydraulic excavators employs
step less control of traction and it's speed Lich offer simple reversing
and operating mechanism with high reduction speed ratio. The
machine is also very much reliable in operation. The main operations in
a hydraulic excavator are done by the hydraulic pressure.

Working Principle

The hydraulic pressure is generated by a prime mover i.e. by a diesel

engine (most commonly used) or by an electric motor which drives
number of, hydraulic motors via a gearbox, used to perform most of the
working functions. The hydraulic pump generates fluid pressure to the
valve bank which directs and controls the maintenance of fluid

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

pressure in numerous hydraulic circuits for the operation of various

hydraulic units with higher efficiency. The hydraulic power operates all
the crowd mechanism, hoist mechanism, swinging mechanism; traction
mechanism etc. Presently a having bucket capacity varying from 0.4m 3
to more than 34 m3 are available in the market.

Description

The arm and boom of a hydraulic shovel are of welded box design with
high tensile steel having cast part of all pivot points. In Tripower version,
the bearing points of boom/superstructure, boom/arm and arm/bucket
are made of heavy cast steel parts to increase more stability. The lip of
the bottom dump shovel is made of high-tensile fine grain steel in a
robust welded box design. The rear wall of the bottom dump bucket is
also made of high tensile structure through welded box design. The
front dump bucket is made of high tensile fine-grain steel in all areas of
potential wear and is of welded box design in the pivot areas. Both the
bottom dump and front dump bucket have V-edges and high tensile
drop-forged replaceable tooth tips supported by the socket - type
mounting. In some version tooth are made of cast steel which are of
self sharpening type. The hydraulic cylinders are made of seamless pipe
materials having super fine and rolled inner surface. The piston rod is
hardened, ground, surface treated and eventually chromium plated to
enhance the life of guide bushings and head seals. Both side of
hydraulic cylinders are attached with joint bearings. Swinging gear is
operated by planetary gear mechanism with the help of hydraulic
motor. The swinging is done at around 0 to 4.7 rpm.

Superstructure and undercarriage connection is provided through

three path roller-bearing slewing ring with sealed internal toothing.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Traveling mechanism is governed by crawler tracks, each of which is

operated by individual hydraulic drives via an axial piston motor, each
connected to a pinion planetary transmission. Travel speed and
maximum tractive force are around 2 km/h to 2.1 km/h and 428 KN to
more than 790 KN. respectively.

Besides all the controls in operator's cab, arrangements of automatic

and constant angle bucket guidance during the horizontal crowd
movement at any height and reach, during lifting and lowering of the
attachment etc., automatic rollback of the bucket to prevent curling
of the same, constant lift moment within the complete slewing range of
the boom, etc. are provided. With the help of floating position a limited
vertical reaction forces are transmitted to the basic machine during the
crowding movement of the bucket. With this arrangement the control
of the machine is made easier, the operating life of the machine is
lengthened considerably and energy losses are prevented to a great
extent. Wear at the bottom of the bucket also become minimum. Time
relay controlled automatic lubrication to all pivot points on the
attachment (except the pivot points between bucket and arm), the
roller paths and toothing of the slewing ring are provided. Automatic
centralized lubrication of all bearing points in a programmed
adjustable time interval, controlled by a time relay is provided in the
machine. A RH120C shovel has a cycle time around 25 s and can fill a
120t dumper with 5 buckets. A 1701 dumper can be loaded in about
175s. With a bucket capacity of 12 m3 and swell factor 1.3 it can
excavate ore or rock at a rate of 1100 m3/h.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

DRAG LINE

The total population of dragline in India is around 50 with a maximum

capacity of bucket size is 30m3 A dragline is an excavator which has a
boom (length varies form 9m to 96 m approx) one end of which is
attached with the revolving unit of the machine and the hanging end
in the other side carries a large sheave for the cable attached with the
bucket. It is made of lattice construction by the structural steel which is
lowered down or raised up by the cable of boom hoist For dragging
the bucket towards the machine one end of a drag cable is attached
with the bucket and the other end is connected to the drag hoist via
fairlead which is at the foot of the boom. The bucket is filled up by
pulling or dragging the bucket against the loose material by the drag
cable and then it is hoisted up by the hoist cable. Finally it dumps the
material directly over the spoil dump or over the trucks or railway
wagons. Generally the draglines are used for direct handling and
rehandling of over burden material during overcastting since it is the
cheapest means of overburden removal. It has longer reach and does
not need auxiliary haulage equipment. It is also used to handle soft and
unconsolidated materials, blasted rock or mineral, coal, top soil,
rehandling of ore or coal stockpile, etc. Except direct casting for
overburden removal it requires supporting haulage equipment. Since
the dragline booms are longer in length is can dig well below and
above the level where it stand and has larger flexibility in operating
condition as compared to a shovel although it is 80% to 85% efficient in
material handling as compared to an identical shovel. A dragline can
nicely be used for stripping into the under-water, stripping of soft ore,
sub-level operations, removing a high cut and stacking in one
operation, to work in muddy and unstable condition, digging semi-
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

consolidated soil, etc. But it can not work on a steep grade on the
uneven footwall condition.

System of Working

The dragline may either be crawler mounted (most common), wagon

mounted, track mounted or walking type. The boom can move both
vertically (from horizontal), 25° to 60° (more common is 30° to 35°) and
horizontally (0° to 180° with the help of swing mechanism) to perform
the job. Rear end of the box shaped bucket whose one end is open,
attached by means of two hoist chains with the help of pins. The other
end of the hoist chains are fitted with a dump sheave. To prevent the
chains from rubbing on the side of the bucket a spreader bar is
attached with the chains before

connecting with the sheave. The drag chains are attached in the front
side of the bucket at one end while the other end is connected with a
drag yoke. The drag chains are connected to the drag cable by
dragline socket.

Direct digging is possible in case loose sandstone, soil, etc. are to be

encountered where as blasting is necessary to the full extent prior to
excavation. Bucket weight, design and balance together with the
angularity of the drag cable excavated by a dragline. Concentration
of the forces are done by the replaceable type teeth attached with
the bucket, which dig into the material at a steeper angle (around 18°
to 22°). The material of the heavy bucket, lip and the teeth are made
of manganese steel. Buckets are sometimes perforated to drain out
water accompanied with the collected muck. During dragging, drag
cable should be kept out of touch with the muck pile and ground as
much as possible to prevent much wear and also swinging should be

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

properly controlled and minimized to avoid bend in the heavily loaded

drag cable. During digging, the machine is periodically repositioned to
optimize bucket control for improved filling, for shaping of the digging
face and also to maximize reach for disposal of overburden or ore.
Production will definitely improve if multiple passes to fill the bucket is
avoided, if the bucket is filled by travel a distance around 2 to 3 times
the bucket length, by minimizing the vertical hoist distance and also by
minimizing the swing angle from digging to dumping.

During swinging the bucket gains considerable inertia, the advantage

of which can be taken to cast both the bucket material beyond the
boom end increasing the actual digging and dumping radius
respectively. At every advance of the During swinging, the bucket
gains a considerable inertia, the advantage of which can be taken to
cast both the bucket of a dragline with 24m bucket capacity and 90m
boom length the width of key cut at the bottom and top of the bench
of dragline an initial key cut in the high wall is necessary while the
dragline is located over the top of the high wall. In case 40 m height is
around 5m and 41m respectively. The cut width will be around 86m in
this case. During digging, the hoist cable is slacked so that bucket
totally rest over the ground with it's full load and the drag hoist drag the
drag cable. The drag travel is reversed during hoisting to keep the load
in the bucket in right manner. Swinging, hoisting (interact wit each
other) and acceleration after digging, require maximum power
demand. Bucket should neither be pulled up into the fairlead or boom
point, nor it should be lifted up into the boom (it is also called the 'Thight
Lining'). Warning devices and mechanical and/or electrical motion cut-
offs are to be incorporated in the machine to alert the machine
operator and also to prevent this incidents.
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Leveling and grading with the help of dozer is very essential for good
maneuvering, reducing high local stresses on the ground floor and
setting.dragline over the bank. Any slippery surfaces and din (which
may penetrate into the roller circle mechanism and produce heavy
wear onto the rope) accumulate on the bank must be pushed back by
the bulldozer The resting spot of the dragline body depends upon the
slope stability of the high wall and the working face, blast effected
fragmented zone, level ground condition, requirement of dumping and
digging radius, machine weight and it's physical size etc. Efficiency of a
dragline is reduced and machine abuse is increased when it digs
(chops down) materials from the working faces above its level. In that
case it is very difficult to control the penetration of bucket into the
muck and also high drag forces are necessary to pull the bucket. The
cutting depth by the bucket depends upon the bucket weight, teeth
sharpness, diggability of the ground, the cutting angle, etc. Digging
and dumping height, digging and dumping radius depends upon the
length and angle of the boom. Length of the boom can be increased
by adding up extra section of structural steel work with the boom but it
will decrease the capacity of the dragline and stability of the main
machine body. To stabilize the dragline additional counter weights are
to be provided to the machine. To stabilize large draglines double
crawler tracks in both the sides, stabilizing jacks, etc. are also provided.
Higher the angle of boom from the horizontal, lower would be the
digging and dumping radius, digging depth, clearance radius of
boom, elc., whereas the dumping height, casting distance, clearance
height of the boom, etc. will be increased. It is already mentioned that
the cycle of operation of a dragline consist of positioning of the bucket
near to the digging point, dragging and filling the bucket, optimum

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

hoisting and swinging the bucket to the dumping point, discharging the
material in swinging and lowering the bucket for next digging
operation.

For overburden removal a dragline is more mobile and versatile

machine as compared to shovel although it's loading efficiency is less.
One the loosely ground surface some preparation work is necessary to
keep the dragline over it for efficient working. In case of softer, deeper
overburden in wet and geologically disturbed pit, a dragline c loading
efficiency is less. On the loosely ground surface some preparation work
is necessary to keep the dragline over it For overburden removal a
dragline is more mobile and versatile machine as compared to a
shovel although it's more efficiently as compared to a shovel. Dragline
can also efficiently be used for recovering minerals from placer
deposits.

Selection of Dragline

• The following points are to be considered during selection of a

dragline-
• It is generally used for handling softer unconsolidated material,
• It has a greater ability to dig well above and below grade. It can
excavate deep box cut,
• It has a greater digging reach and dumping radius,
• Since dragline boom length can be lengthened and shortened, its
working range also can be varied according to desire, may or may not
require other equipment for disposal,
• Although it is less efficient as compared to the shovel, it can function
well under less rigid operating condition then the shovel, i. e. it has
more flexibility in operation,

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• Since they are located on the top of the bench, surface bench
slides, water seepage, small undulation of surface (in case of large
undulation, it has to be leveled first) does not hamper the effective
operation of dragline during overcastting,
• During opening of opencast mine dragline is the most suitable
excavator due to its larger reach and location at the top level of the
cut. Multi-seam stripping is possible.
• In the soft mineral deposit the dragline can operate efficiently as
compared to a shovel. The former can be located on the surface and
load on the dumper on the surface itself,
• Heavy duty dragline are walking type and light duty one are of
crawler mounted,
• They can negotiate a gradient up to 12° and ground pressure 1-2
kg/cm2,
• In the presence of a hopper - reloader draglines can load material
onto railway wagon, belt conveyor and other transport facilities,
• Height of waste heap is always restricted by the dragline
dumping radius and not by the dumping height. Superior in wet pits,
• Maintenance is cheap,

The Dragline has following demerits also-

• If the blasted rocks are of large lump, the bucket is filled

insufficiently and the bucket and drag rope wear rapidly.
• Used for softer rock formation
• Production cost is more as compared to the powered shovel,
• It's efficiency is less as compared to a powered shovel,
• Bucket fill factor is less as compared to the shovel and it requires
well blasted/fragmented rocks to be excavated.
• Lesser spotting ability,
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• Lesser output than the powered shovel,

The Machine

A dragline consists of bucket, boom, power transmission unit for bucket

operation, boom hoist mechanism, swing mechanism, propelling
mechanism (crawler track mechanism, walking mechanism-
mechanical eccentric type, hydraulic ram type), lubrication system,
under carriage unit, etc. The booms are of lattice construction and
made of low alloy steel tubes or steel angles. Longer length booms are
supported by an 'A' -frame mast with the help of stay ropes. Draglines
are powered by high capacity A. C. synchronous motor which in turn
supply power to a hoist generator, a drag generator, a swing
generator, etc. to supply D. C. power to the two hoist motor, two drag
motor, two swing motor, etc. respectively. Supplied power voltage
range is generally 3.3 KV to 6.6 KV.

Bucket Hoist Mechanism

The bucket hoist mechanism is meant for lowering or raising the bucket.
It may be either 2 or 3 part hoist. In one of the design for smaller
capacity dragline the motor provides power to the hoist drum via
gearbox unit. The forged steel shaft of the gearbox unit connected to
the hoist drum, mounts over the journal bearings. The hoist rope
directed from the drum passes round a sheave at the A-frame apex,
then over the sheave mounted at the top of the mast (when fitted)
over the sheave(s) at the boom point to the dump sheave case to form
a 2 or 3 part hoist. The brake of the boom hoist drum is electrically
operated and air released type. It is mounted over the motor armature
shaft. This brake is used to control the bucket position and also

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

immediately applied as soon as the power supply is off.

Fairlead

The purpose of the fairlead is to lead the drag rope nicely into the
cable drum and also to not to allow rubbing or snapping of rope on the
boom or other parts of the dragline. It is mounted at the front of the
revolving-frame at the fool of the boom. In one model the fairlead
consists of 2 horizontal cast steel sheaves (which are adjustable for
different sizes of drums) which allows leading of rope from the fairlead
to the drum. The, fairlead has also 2 vertical sheaves mounted over the
cast steel swiveling frame which swings in line with the drag rope
irrespective of the position of the bucket.

Drag Mechanism

One end of the drag rope is connected to a drag drum unit and the
other end is to the drag chain of the bucket by a dragline yoke. It's
purpose is to handle (dragging) the bucket under the control of the
drag controlled lever. In one of the small capacity dragline models, the
drag motor unit is connected with the drag drum unit through an
electrically controlled air actuated clutch. The drum is a split lagging
type with machine - turned grooves for accommodating the drag
rope. An electrically controlled brake is mounted over the primary
pinion shaft.

Boom Unit

The boom unit is of lattice and cross-braced construction. All its chord
members and lacings are made from structural steel and of welded
construction. The lower portion of the boom unit is connected to the
revolving unit. The sheaves are mounted at the boom point with the
help of journal bearings. The sheaves are made from cast steel. In
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

smaller capacity Dragline models,each boom is made up of at least 2

sections but in case of higher capacity model additional intermediate
sections (around 3m) are inserted in between the two end sections.

Boom Hoist Mechanism

The boom is lowered down or raised up by four part rope suspension

system. It is similar to the shovel. The is coiled or uncoiled to a boom
hoist rope drum which is operated by a separate motor via. a gearbox
unit. In case of compact unit, this boom-hoist system is mounted on a
structural support on the roof in the truss which is formed by the upper
part of the A' -frame. In case of smaller dragline models, the rope is
revved between the sheaves at the apex of the 'A' frame and at the
boom point. But in case of larger dragline,the boom is supported by an
auxiliary mast-mounted at the foot of the boom. It also have a bridge-
strand guys between the upper end and the boom point pin. The
boom hoist rope is revved between the' A'-frame apex and' sheaves at
the top of the mast.

Operator's Cab

The cab is substantially constructed by steel sheet and glass members

and it is of self-supporting type. Removable panels and doors in them
(for inspection and maintenance) are provided over the motor
generator set, swinging and hoisting system, sides and rear end of the
'A'-frame. All the machinery are completely enclosed and the cab is
provided with the doors and windows, auxiliary ventilating fan and also
other ancilliary safety equipment. The cab of higher capacity dragline
is completely air conditioned, heat, dust and noise proof. A panel
incorporating all switches, consoles, etc. are located near to the

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operator's position for operating the machine. The driver seat is well
designed.

WALKING DRAGLINE

The concept of a walking dragline is developed due to its following

merits·

▪ It produces low ground pressure (around 0.3 to 0.9 kg/cm2

depending upon size) because of it's larger base area, Turning of the
machine is very easy and possible in a small space,
▪ .
▪ It does not damage the ground surface.
▪ It can do work in softer ground condition, in a slope around 15° and
cable located very near to the bench edge. Requirement of power is
very less,
▪ It is very simple in construction. But their speed is very slow (around
200 to 500 m per hour depending upon size) and bulky in construction
(since their width is more than 10 m, and hence it requires dismantling
and reinstallation to shift it from one mine to another). It also cannot
work efficiently in the foot of the high wall and requires prior leveling of
ground during movement.

Table shows a comparison among the crawler track unit, wheel unit
and walking unit whereas the Table shows the specifications of some of
the walking Draglines.

Table: general comparison among the crawler track unit, wheel unit
and walking unit

Wheel unit Crawler unit Walking unit

• Highly mobile • Moderately • Less mobile

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• Damaging of mobile • Damaging of

road and the • Damaging of road and the
ground are less road and the ground are least
depending upon ground are more
the type and size
• Stability of the
of the machine.
• Stability of the machine is
• Stability of the highest Bearing
machine is more
machine is less pressure over the
Bearing pressure
• Bearing pressure over the ground ground is least.
over the ground is is moderate. Less Least probability
high. More probability of of bogging
probability of tyre bogging down down of walking
bogging down in of crawler unit in unit in the soft
the soft floor the soft floor. floor.

• Traveling speed is • Traveling speed • Traveling speed

high is moderate is least.

• Offer less rolling Rolling resistance • Power

resistance. is high. Hence requirement to
Requirement of requirement of propel is very
power is less as power is high less.
compared to an • It is efficient in • It is efficient in
identical crawler the gradient less the gradient less
unit. than 12°. than 15°.
• It is efficient in the However However
gradient less then sometimes even sometimes even
6°. However even 15° to 16° 18° to 20°

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

sometimes 12° gradient it can gradient it can

gradient negotiate. negotiate.
negotiation is Machine power Hydraulic power
possible. Tractive plays the main or economic
effort plays the significant role to machine power
main significant negotiate play the main
role to negotiate gradient significant role to
gradient. • It can travel negotiate

• It can travel shorter distance gradient. It's

longer distance economically. economic

economically. traveling
• Medium weight
distance is the
• Less weight and and bulkiness
shortest.
bulkiness, and also and moderately
less stable. stable. • Heavy weight
and bulky and
• It can negotiate • It can negotiate
highly stable.
very rough and moderately
undulating rough and • Require

surface. undulating dismantling and

• Maneuverability surface. • reinstallation

and steering is less • Maneuverability during area to

easy. It requires and steering is area move. It

larger turning easy. It requires requires plane

less turning radius surface to

o radius to
turn. to turn. • move.

• Simple in • Complicated in • Maneuverability

construction. construction. and steering is

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• Tractive effort is Tractive effort is very easy. It

less more requires least

• Can efficiently • Can efficiently turning radius

work near to the work(near to the • to turn.

foot of the high foot of the high • Very simple in
wall. wall. construction.
• Light duty to • Moderately • It is based on
moderately heavy heavy to highly walking
duty equipment heavy duty mechanism.
are wheel equipment are
• Can not
mounted. crawler track
efficiently work
mounted.
near to foot of
the high wall
because of the
machine's larger
width.

• Heavy to super
heavy duty
equipment are
walking unit
mounted. Table
6.3 shows the
specifications of
some of the
walking dragline.

The working principle of the crank or cam type walking mechanism is as

following-
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

The machine working base has a circular tub which rest over the
ground. The turntable is mounted over it. On either side of the machine
there is either eccentric crank or cam mechanism along with walking
shaft which are connected to walking frame and walking shoes.

The Working Mechanism

• In the 1st position both the tub of the machine and shoes rest
over the ground.
• The eccentric mechanism of the walking shaft which when start
rotation in the clockwise, up to an angle 45" from the initial
starting point the back side of the base will start rising and at the
same time it will move backward. The shoes are rest over the
ground and heavy weight will transfer on them. On further
eccentric crank motion the machine body will move further
backward and downward keeping the shoes rest over the
ground and at an angle of 90° the total body will rest over the
ground. After then there will be no further backward movement
of the body.
• When the eccentric crank shaft starts moving towards 270° the
walking shoe will start rising and start moving backward while the
body will remain under resting condition over the ground. On
further rotation the walking shoe will move further backward and
at 360° the shoe will rest over the ground. This way a complete
cycle of operation of the walking mechanism is performed.

For turning the machine first the revolving body is turned to a desired
angle and then the walking mechanism is started. The machine will
thereafter turn accordingly.

Hydraulic Ram-Type

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

In this case there are two shoes (one in each side) and
each shoes are attached with the upper deck of the machine body by
two hydraulic cylinders. One cylinder is called the lifting cylinder, the
other one the auxiliary cylinder. Both of them are connected to a
transverse place attached with the shoe in such a manner that the
shoe can negotiate some undulation. Keeping the body in the resting
condition over the ground, lift cylinders lift the shoe up by retracting the
inner cylinder into the outer one and the till cylinder pushes the shoes
towards the walking direction by extending the inner cylinder till the
lifting cylinders orient in vertical position. Thereafter with the help of
lifting cylinder the shoes are lowered down and pressurized (around 180
kg/cm2) highly against the ground surface so that the total body of the
dragline is lifted up. Afterward by retracting the inner cylinder of the
auxiliary cylinder in side the outer cylinder the body is moved forward
and lowered down again over the ground surface to complete the
cycle of operation.

Draglines are available in various capacities, bucket

capacity ranging from 0.3 m3 to 168 m3 with boom length varying
around ranging form 10 m to 96 m. Width and length of the walking
shoe may vary from 1 m to 6 m and 6 m to 39 m (approx) respectively.
A digging depth and dumping radius around 56 m and 92 m
respectively are not quite uncommon. For softer rock and dumping
over a haulage unit a dragline having capacity around 6 m 3 to 10 m3
and for over casting a dragline around 10 m3 to 30 m3 are very much
advantageous.

FRONT END LOADER

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

The front end loader is either a crawler track or wheel

mounted tractor having a bucket at the front of the mainframe. It is
used for loading coal or ore from a smaller height bench (say a height
around 3m to 15m) onto the trucks, rail wagon or other conveying
system. It also loads and transports material, ore or coal to a smaller
distance. During stripping it piles up blasted rock mass or mineral to
assist power shovel for loading, handling etc. It also spreads rock or ore
in the stockpile of material handling station. The machine can nicely be
used for the removal and hauling of top soil for a distance of 150m and
a thickness of bench around 2m. The crawler track mounted front end
loader is used where the ground condition is soft, terrain is rough and
also where high digging force is required to excavate the loose or
blasted rock mass or mineral. The wheel mounted front end loader has
a very high degree of mobility. It is a highly speedy loading machine
and has a high degree of flexibility and a high degree of productivity
and longevity. The machine is highly efficient for unconsolidated rock,
good fragmented rock mass or ore, but less efficient of handling blocky
poor fragmented rock mass. It can be used efficiently on the soft to
hard floor condition. It has a high digging capability and moderate to
high production capacity. Combination of loading by front end loader
and transporting by dumper can transport economically ore to a
distance of more than 3 km for a very low to very high production rate.

For rehandling of spoil for a distance of 100m to 150 m it is

one of the best machine. When a front-end-loader is not being used for
loading coal/ore/ overburden rock, it can be used for the road
construction, spot, filling, floor cleaning around the shovel, lifting and
transporting equipment/component of the equipment, etc.

Selection of Front End Loader

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

It is to be done based on the following considerations:

• Where there are the existence of fluctuation of demand of ore / coal

in the market
• For multi-bench or multi-pit operations
• Where blending of coal/ore is required
• Where capital to be invested for the procurement of equipment is
less. A front-end-loader may work independently without any auxiliary
or supplementary clean-up equipment like bulldozer.
• In case the life of the opencast mine is short.
• In case where higher production and less investment is desired.
• Where less skilled operating persons are required.
• Where there are the presence of moderately easy digging materials
and well fragmented rocks.

The Bucket and Other Main Units

The cutting edge (made from manganese steel) of the bucket of

the loader may be either straight type for maximum cleaning and
loading efficiency and also for higher flexibility of operation whereas
the 'vee' type cutting teeth are used for better penetration in the muck
pile. Size of the bucket depends on the requirement of production
capacity. cycle time, bucket fill factor, digging factor, operating
efficiency, swell factor, machine availability, propel time factor etc.

Based on the capacity of the bucket the size of the front-end-

loader is selected. Sometimes counter weight is provided onto the
loader for higher stability of the machine and to increase the operating
load capability. The bucket may be either powered controlled or
gravity controlled. The gravity controlled bucket has an arrangement
to release the loaded bucket under gravity and also the bucket can

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be lifted up either by hydraulic mechanism or by rope pulley system.

Power operated buckets are controlled by the hydraulic system. The
efficiency of the loader is lowered down while digging the harder and
coarser materials. Buckets are generally arranged overturning type.

Loader (wheel mounted)

Beside bucket the loader consists the units like engine, arms,
power transmission system, undercarriage unit or frame.

Generally the power is provided to the loader driving wheel in

case of the wheel mounted front end loader or to the driving sprocket
in case of the crawler track mounted front end loader by the diesel
engine via torque converter, reduction gear box, propeller shafts and
differential gearing systems.

Mechanical linkage arms are actuated by the double acting

hydraulic pistons. Raising or lowering of the bucket, tilting, floating and
holding of the same are governed by the hydraulic system which
consists oil tank. oil pump, lift and tilt cylinders, relief and other control
valve system etc.

The loader consists two types of brakes which are-

(a) Hydraulic operated main brakes and

(b) Parking brakes.

Operation

For crowding the bucket is lowered down and the whole front end
loader unit is pushed forward towards the bench for digging. After
digging is over the bucket unit is raised up slightly by the lifting cylinder.
The loaded loader is then reversed back and maneuvered in position
to the dumping point or unload the material over the dumper by
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overturning the bucket by the tilt cylinders. The loader is then again
maneuvered to the right position and move forward towards the
production bench for loading. Since turning of the machine is
achieved by steering the whole front end loader unit, it's digging,
loading and unloading cycle of operations are slower as compared to
a shovel and hence the capacity is also less as compared to the latter.
For gaining maximum loading efficiency it would be better if the loader
is moved within the radius of 5m and the turning angle does not
exceed more than 40° to 45°.

Merits and Demerits of a Front-End-Loader as Compared to a Shovel

Presently a front-end-loader may contain a bucket of more than 22m3

capacity. As compared to a shovel, a front-end-loaders are more
versatile, can efficiently clean the face, grade the muck pile and blend
well, cheaper in price and has less operating cost. Beside this a front-
end-loader requires less capital intensive back-up equipment.
Operators of the front-end-loader trained up within a very short time
and the loader can be used for road making too. However as
compared to a shovel, a front end loaders life is very short (5 to 6
years), has less salvage value, repair and maintenance costs are also
very high. In operation as compared to a shovel machine it suffers form
more shock loading, requires more space for back and turning, requires
good fragmented rocks to be loaded, machine can not crowd and
dig as smooth as a shovel, reach is poor, less efficient to reach for
loading materials up to the end of a truck, bucket is very wide and
weak. may require the help of a dozer to push the material as well as
sometimes to push the loader itself, requires good roadway (sometimes
fines are sprayed over the road for good padding) and also it's tyre life
is also very small.
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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Special Safety Measures in Shovel , Dragline and Front End Loader

• Electrically powered equipment should be disconnected before

mechanical work is done on such equipment. Power switches should
be locked out or other measures to be taken to prevent the equipment
being connected again without the knowledge of the persons working
on it. Such locks or protective devices should not be removed except
by the person who installed them or by an authorized person (s).
• In case of an unforeseen interruption of the electric power supply,
the operator should immediately return all starters and control levers to
the "stop" or "zero" positions.
• The cabins of all excavating machines should be so equipped that
the operator can always keep that part of the face adjacent to the
machine in sight.
• All sites where excavating machines are operating should be
equipped with a means of communication with the machine operator.
• Cab windows should be of safety glass or equivalent, in good
condition and should be kept clean.
• No person should mount or enter any excavator being operated and
capable of movement without first attracting the operator's attention.
• When moving an excavator, the driven axle should always be
positioned either at the downhill end or at the rear if the machine is
leveled. The bucket should be empty and maintained at a height of
not more than I m above the ground. The jib should face in the
direction of motion.
• In the case of a walking type dragline, the bucket must be empty
and the jib should face backwards, i.e. opposite to the direction of
movement.

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• When moving on a gradient, all possible precautions should be taken

against sliding of an excavator. All movements of an excavator should
be performed with the aid of an assistant to the operator.
• Excavators should stand on a firm and level base, with a gradient not
exceeding the permissible gradient specified in the technical
instruction sheet. In all cases, the distance from the flank of a bench or
dump or any transport vehicle to the counterweight of an excavator
should not be less than 1 m and the cabin of the machine during
operation should be placed in such a way that danger to the operator
is minimized
• A free passage should be maintained at all times to enable an
excavator to be speedily removed from a mining face.
• An excavator in operation 'should be stopped and removed
immediately to a safe place when any dangerous conditions are
detected, and particularly when there is a likelihood of rock falls from
the face or when misfires have been located in the working area.

BUCKET WHEEL EXCAVATOR

It is suitable for long range stripping of soft overburden rocks at a

considerable lower cost although the machine is costly having lower
flexibility. The machine is nicely applicable in the following conditions-

• Hard and tough well fragmented blasted rock with no or less

boulders, having consistency of uniform ground and bank
condition,
• Since it has a wide radius of excavation (around 40m to 90m) with
high and deep cut, the width of the bench floor exposes more
reserve and create huge amount of space for the mobile
equipment. The slope of the pit is also very stable,

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

• It can be used for selective and thin seam mining,

• For easy disposal of ore or overburden to a considerable distance
above or below of it's working level.
• It is a very highly efficient excavator for lignite, soft alluvium, etc,
• For reclamation of land.

The Machine and Operation

A bucket wheel excavator (BWE) has a wheel around 2.5 m to 17

m diameter containing 6 to 18 number evenly spaced bucket
(capacity ranging from 0.04 m3 to 6.3 m3) around it's periphery. The
series of buckets attached to the periphery of the wheel, dig into the
mineral or softer rock mass and cut the same when the wheel rotates
from bottom to top (clockwise). The cut material is loaded by the
bucket and is discharged over the belt conveyor mounted on the
same movable (both in horizontal and vertical direction) boom via. a
hopper. Various types of buckets are available viz cell type, cell-less
type, semi cell type. Cell type buckets has individual discharge chute
to discharge material onto conveyor unit via. slope sheet or roll feeder
or disk feeder. The cell-less type bucket discharges materials on to
annular common guide chute permitting free falling of material with
higher wheel rpm and has higher capacity. The excavated material
from the bucket flows on to the conveyor unit via slope sheet or roll
feeder or disk feeder. Semi-cell type buckets are used for larger
diameter wheel having advantages of highest bucket filling and
emptying characteristics.

To increase the digging effectiveness in harder rock formation

cutting bows are attached in between the bucket in addition to the
teeth or cutting bow on the bucket top. Power from the motor to the

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

multi-speed wheel drive unite is transmitted either via hydraulically

operated multiple disc clutch or fluid coupling or magnetic power
clutches to combat overloads. The digging depth of a big BWE is
around 25 m below and a cutting height of around 70 m above it's
level and a cutting width around 100 m is possible. The vertical
movement of the cutting boom is done by a hoist rope connected with
a structure in front of the excavator. Because of the belt transporting
system the angle of the boom is kept within 20°. For negotiation of more
angle of inclination say 30° to 40°, either a sandwich type belt
conveyor shall be used or the length of the boom shall be enlarged
after providing ballast in the machine body to increase its stabilization.

One end of the boom is attached to the swinging platform of the

machine to swing the former horizontally. The material from the boom
conveyor is discharged onto a fixed conveyor and finally the material is
unloaded directly either over the spoil dump or railway wagons or truck
or spreader or into the hopper of the movable belt conveyor.

Most of the BWE are either crawler track mounted or rail mounted. Rail
mounted BWE are more common. The excavators are operated either
by diesel (it is very rare and applied for smaller BWE) or electricity. The
rotation of the wheel is around 4 rpm to 8 rpm (cutting speed varies
from 1.3 m/s to 3.0 m/s) and dig into the face around half the maximum
diameter of the wheel in deep digging with a digging force around 5
kg/cm2 to 14 kg/cm2. BWE cuts softer reason it also consumes less
power, requires less maintenance and above all the machine requires
less body weight. mineral body or rock mass by rotating wheel which
produces less stress and strain to the machine body. Because of this
During cutting and swinging operation, the stress and strain distributed
more evenly in the machine body and facilitates lower and gradual
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ground bearing pressure by the crawler track units. The Bucket Wheel
Excavator when in operation shall not be moved and maneuvered
frequently. The short boom length and stubby - design bucket wheel
has the lowest capital cost.

An one unit reduction in weight of the bucket wheel causes 11 to

12 times the reduction of overall weight of the BWE and hence the cost
of machine also reduce accordingly. For best economic return the
bucket-wheel face shall be as long as possible with a permissible
mining slope around 6° to 9°. The transport system of a BWE face may
be either belt conveyor, truck dispatch or rail system. Although the belt
conveyor transport system is the expensive one but it is the best option
for mine transport for long term projects. But during selection of the belt
conveyor special care must be taken to match the belt conveyor
capacity with the BWE capacity for a particular type of rock/
mineral/coal. The truck transport system is a discrete system. Delay of
supply of truck will cause stoppage of production by the BWE. The rail
system although not continuous but if it is made automatic and a very
high amount of ore/coal/overburden rock can be transported at the
cheapest rate.

The basic parameters are to be considered during cutting by a

BWE are the digging resistance, intact rock strength, jointing of bedding
planes, fractures, other geo-mechanical parameters of rocks, tooth
shapes and sharpness. angle of attack, wedge angle of the cutting lip,
etc. All these parameters must be matched with the machine
configuration and power of the machine.

Buckets of a BWE adversely affected by the presence of the

abrasive materials like highly angular siliceous sand and gravels,

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

presence of sticky materials like plastic clay, presence of stronger stone

bands having compressive strength more than 600 kg/cm2, presence of
smaller percentage of stronger rock boulders in the softer rocks, etc.

In case of stronger rock condition drop cutting method shall be

introduced. In this case, the major items which teeth on the pre-cutters,
parallel rather than off-set wheels, manganese steel liners over the
bucket teeth and tungsten carbide over the tip of the teeth. The
stronger stone bands thicker than 10 cm shall either be pre-blasted or
selectively ripped and afterward they shall be excavated by the BWE.
In case a BWE to be used in the sticky materials eg in the plastic clay,
either chain backed bucket or linatex rubber linings and sprayed on
Teflon linings shall be used over the bucket.

The rate of production by the BWE varies from 100 m3/h to more
than 11000 m3/h, machine weight varies from 351 to more than 7000 t
and power around 200 kW to more than 7000 kW.

The Main Units

The main units of a bucket wheel excavator consists of the following-

1. Wheel unit with buckets,

2.Under frame with travel mechanism,

3. Superstructure with all machine housing along with motors,

gearboxes and other mechanism, counter weight , structure, winches
etc.,

4. Swinging mechanism,

5. Digging boom,

6. Digging boom belt conveyor,

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Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

7. Swinging cantilever with discharge boom belt conveyor and chute,

8. Luffing arrangement,

9. Suspension truss for digging boom etc.

Safety in Bucket Wheel Excavator and its Operation

• The technical instruction sheet should specify the permissible limits for
gradients and radii of curvature for railway tracks and roads used by
rail mounted and walking BWE.
• Track gauges and other devices used for making observations on
variations in track width and gradients should be checked at least
once a month and in no case a BWE should be operated if the gauges
and devices for variations in track width and gradient are missing or
defective.
• A BWE with extractable booms which cannot be retracted should be
fitted with automatic devices to ensure that the specified rates of
movement and angles of turn of the rotary boom are not exceeded.
• A BWE should be fitted with devices for preventing the bucket frame
rotary boom and conveyor from lifting. lowering or turning through
angles greater than those provided for the machine design.
• The operator's cabin of an excavating machine should be equipped
with an alarm signaling-board and with instruments for controlling the
rate of motion and turning angle of the rotary boom, the rate of motion
of the excavating machine and the voltage and power load at the
lead-in of the machine.
• Before starting a new cut with a BWE, the shift supervisor or foreman
should inspect the face and take any necessary steps for the removal
of foreign bodies such as large tree roots, pieces of timber, metal

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objects and the like along the entire front of operation of the machine
and to the full width of cut, taking due account the angle of repose.
• A BWE with bottom digging should not be operated where there is a
possibility of rocks sliding on the face and where the required stability of
the slope and that of the working surface cannot be ensured.
• In a combined operation involving a BWE with conveyors and
spreaders, the controls of the excavators/conveyors/ spreaders should
be interlocked.
• In order to carry out repair and adjustment work, measures should be
provided for manual control of each separate machine.

Placer Mining
A placer deposit is a loose mineral deposit formed either by chemical
weathering at the place of origin of ore or formed by mechanical
weathering of ore body by stream of water.

Sediments are thereafter migrated to a nearly or far off distance and

deposited layer after layer underneath the water.

Placer deposits are also formed by weathering of very lighter ore by

wind action which are migrated to some nearly place or they are also
formed by erosion and migration of ore body by tidal wave in sea
beach or formed by weathering due to water current over pre-existing
placers in offshore.

1. Gold 5. Opal
2. Diamond 6. Ilmenite
3. Tin 7. Chromite
4. Platinum
Placer deposits are most of the time covered by overburden like
alluvium, silt, sand and other non-commercial mineral deposits.
Page 79 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

This overburden is removed by dredging, hydraulicking, ground sluicing,

scrapers, dragline, bucket chain excavator, bucket wheel excavator,
depending on nature, occurrence, type, size of deposits,
environmental condition, geotechnical parameters of deposits,
location, organization, cost, economics etc.

Mining of placer deposits is done by manual hydraulicking, sluicing and

dredging methods.

Example- IREL is doing placer mining from decades

▪ Ilmenite
▪ Rutile
▪ Zircon
▪ Silimanite Associated Minerals
▪ Garnet
▪ Monazite
Titanium Metal (5%)
Ilmenite Titanium Oxide (95%)
Titanium Aircraft Industry
Watches
Submarines
Missiles
Ships

Titanium Oxide-As white pigment in manufacture of points,

coating plastics and papers

Page 80 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Zircon- Ceramic glazes in tiles, foundry, refractory, TV glass,

abrasives

Garnet-Abrasive medium for sand blasting in ship building industry

as well as water jet cutting.

Sillimanite- Refractory bricks lining in high temperature furnace

kiln and cupola of blast furnaces

Leaching
Extraction of soluble metal compounds by reaction with acid or basic
solvents or water with ore or waste dump.
1. Chemical leaching
2. Bacterial leaching
Copper-Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
Lead-Galena (PbS) Leached by acidic ferric sulphate
solution
Iron-Pyrite (FeS2)
Zinc-Sphalerite (ZnS)

CuFeS2 + 2Fe2 (SO4)3 -CuSO4 +5FeSO4 +2S

2PbS +2Fe2 (SO4)3 + 2H2O +3O2-2PbSO4 + 4FeSO4 + 2H2SO4
FeS2 +Fe (SO4)3 – 3FeSO4 + 2S
ZnS + 4Fe2 (SO4)3 + 4H2O – ZnSO4 + 8FeSO4 + 4 H2SO4
2Ag + Fe (SO4)3 -Ag2SO4 + 2 FeSO4
Copper Sulphate dissolved in circulated water and discharged onto
storage tank. From storage tank it is precipitated on iron. Then copper is
washed away into a settling tank where it is reclaimed as copper slurry.
Finally, it is blended with copper concentrate and feed into smelter for
extraction of pure copper.
Page 81 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Sulphuric acid of around 8-10% strength, sodium hydroxide or water

may also be used for leaching copper. Sulphide ores are first broken
into fragments, then air as well as ferric sulphate solution are circulated
alternately to react with ore. Air supplies oxygen. After reaction, water
containing metal salt is taken out through tunnels or trenches built in
broken ore body.

Application and Operation-Leaching process is very cheap and can

be successfully applied for extraction of copper and other valuable
minerals.
Basic In-Situ Leaching Conditions
1. Host rock should have very good permeability.

2. Ore must be located below water table.

3. Direction and velocity of regional water flow must be known.

4. Ore should occur at favorable depth.

5. Ore should be of sufficient size and grade to justify cost of

production.

Advantages
This method is advantageous due to low gestation period, low capital
cost, high productivity, quick capital return, higher safety, less prone to
environmental damage, less man power required.
Hydraulicking
Loosening and transporting of loose, friable good, placers sand, loam,
pebble etc. can be done by hydraulic mining. A hydraulic monitor is
pointed towards mentioned ground and a high-pressure water jet is
delivered to loose ground. The dislodged ground is thereafter
transported by water stream. Hydraulic monitor mouth should be
placed as close as to working face to increase efficiency of monitor, to
Page 82 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

increase amount of excavation of ground and to decrease water

consumption. Effectiveness of monitor also depends upon diameter of
nozzle and water pressure.

But monitor should be placed or located at a safe distance so that

caved rock from bench do not cause any accident and damage to
both man and machine. Monitor can be moved both horizontally and
vertically and can direct high pressure water jet in various directions.

However common practice is 1st monitor is pointed towards toe of

bench to cut that portion and remaining portion is allowed to cave
down. Stream of water thereafter washes away caved rocks from face
along down hill direction by gravity through pipeline or channel and
deposits over settling tank.

However if surface terrain is such that natural drainage of pulp is not

possible, a ditch is formed near to toe of placer bench from where
mixture of rock and water is transported upward either by hydraulic
elevator or by drainage pump. Presently drainage pump is commonly
used. Finally pulp is transported with help of channel or pipeline.

Nozzle Diameter-37 mm to 150 mm

Nozzle diameter of 50-75 mm is good for mining of loose placer deposit.

Desirable water pressure at nozzle of monitor is 10-12 kg/cm2. Around
10-40 m3 of water is necessary to excavate 1m3 of rock depending on
location of monitor from working face.

In a properly selected hydraulic monitor, effective range of jet is nearly

half the head of water. Example-A water jet around 50 m at a 100 m
water head is quite common. Water is stored in tank above working
face to create a high head. In hilly terrain ditches, tunnels, wooden or

Page 83 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

steel flumes are constructed to divert water into water storage tank.
Water pumping is expensive.

Dredging

Under water mining of sand, loam, silt, clay placer deposits of gold, tin
etc. lying over floor of natural pond, lake, river, sea shore etc.
Sometimes artificial pond, lake, water basin etc. are created to dredge
placer deposits.

“Dredge” includes any floated vessel used for cutting, pumping or

treatment purposes. Dredging is commonly practiced by multi-bucket
dredge and hydraulic dredge. In case of multi dredging, placer
deposits are cut horizontally layers after layers by buckets up to entire
thickness of deposit by lowering, raising, adjusting ladder of bucket.

Cut material is thereafter elevated and disposed off directly over bank
of water basin. A dredger consists of several steel pontoons over which
super-structure is mounted.

Dredging is applicable under following conditions

1. Placer deposit should be soft and contain either no or a smaller

number of boulders, timbers etc.

2. Depth of placer deposit from water level is very important

3. Inclination of surface terrain should not be more than 1 0 to

maintain efficiently water level in water basin. It also facilitates
construction of artificial water basin.

4. Placer deposit should be easily disintegrated and floor should be

smooth (for easy digging) having no fissures. Presence of
fissures/cracks will result loses of water through them.

Page 84 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

5. Sufficient quantity of water must be present in water basin, river

etc. so that dredge can be smoothly operated.

6. Nature and amount of overburden also dictate dredging

method. Clay, silt etc. present over placer deposit must be
removed prior to excavate placer deposit. Dredging area be
better above high flood level zone.

7. Dredging area in very cold climate region should be avoided

because of frost and accumulation of ice over water.

Bucket Dredging-Can effectively be used in low mineralized placer

deposit.

Advantages

1. Less consumption of power

2. Low operating cost

3. Less requirement of man power

4. Thin placer deposits can be wined easily with high control and

efficiency

5. Smooth and clean surface at bottom of cut basin

6. It can dredge semi-consolidated placer deposit compared to

hydraulic dredge

Average speed 20-25 buckets per minute.

Average production rate 1000m3/day-10,000m3/day
Average productivity 50-80 m3 per man per shift
Hydraulic Dredging-very much useful for dredging silt, sand, gravel etc.
Digging depth: 10-50m

Page 85 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Pump Power: 100-700 kW (Depend on digging depth & Pipe diameter)

Hydraulic dredges are suitable for a particular selective place deposit
since it is unable to extract larger particles, unable to clean completely
loose placer deposit, cannot extract sticky material. The average
percentage of solid by weight in slurry is only around 15%-18%.

Environmental Aspects in Surface Mines

During the Planning of Opencast Mining

Cares must be taken in

1. Top Soil Management

2. Reclamation of Land

3. Mining Polluting Water Resources

4. Mining Affecting Morphology of Rivers & Water Bodies

5. Mining-Related Occupational Health Problems

6. Damages to Wild Life & Aquatic Life

7. Sociological Changes

Land Damaged due to

1. Excavation & Soil Heaps

2. Land Sliding

3. Soil Erosion

Due to mining, the soil is dumped in a nearby place will be damaged

Loss of flora and fauna

Destruction of natural land

Reclamation must take into account not only forestry but also agricultural land for
which

Overburden and topsoil should be dumped separately

Landslides and soil erosion can be prevented

Plantation of trees
Page 86 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Watercourses or drains should be diverted from the mining zone.

Deforestation

Massive deforestation changes

Climatic condition

1. Heat, 2. Humidity, 3. Rainfall

So, compensatory afforestation in an equivalent area should be made before

excavation.

Opencast mining in forest areas not only destroys trees in the mining site nearby
forest affected by air pollution due to surface mining operations but also destroys
nearby forests due to toxic overburden.

Nearby forests are affected by air pollution due to surface mining operations.

Dust particulates may necrotize plant tissues if they pass through plant tissue
stomata.

The growth of plants may be retarded, and leaves and roots may be injured, and
flowers may be decolored in the presence of hydrocarbon gases, aldehydes,
ethylene, hydrogen sulphide in the surrounding atmosphere.

NOX gives rise to ozone (O3) which burns plants.

Air pollution results in inferior quality and low yield of vegetation.

Deforestation is also a source of visual intrusion in mining areas.

Contour walling, afforestation around mining pits, leaving of spur or constructing of a

high berm, afterward planting trees and cultivation of grasses over the slope of
hilltop deposit will increase aesthetic value.

Air Pollution Effects on Human

Coal dust and stone dust in the range of 0.5 µm – 5 µm sizes are responsible for
pneumoconiosis, and silicosis respectively.

The threshold limit of airborne respirable dust has been fixed at 3 mg/m3 by DGMS.

The threshold limit of airborne respirable dust in the USA is 2 mg/m3.

Carbon monoxide is deadly poisonous and reacts with hemoglobin in human blood,
converting it to carboxyl hemoglobin, even at 0.1% by volume causes death of a
person within 4 hours.

Page 87 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

Question 1 A dragline with a 15 m3 bucket capacity & 100 m boom length is employed to
remove Overburden from an opencast project. The average depth of overburden is 20 m.
Determine the expected time to shift the dragline to another place.
Bucket fill factor = 65%; Job efficiency = 80%; Cycle time = 65 seconds; Average surface area
of overburden = 200 m2; Average utilization = 80%
Answer:
Total volume of overburden to be handled = 20×200 = 4000 m 3
Hourly capacity of dragline = 3600×15×0.65×0.8×0.8/65 = 346 m3
Expected time for shifting of dragline = 4000/346 = 11.5 hours

Question 2 In shovel loading of broken ore, if the cycle time of the shovel of 5 m3 bucket
capacity is 40 seconds, bucket fill factor is 0.8, swell factor is 1.5, and utilization factor is 0.6,
then calculate the hourly capacity of the shovel.
Answer:
Hourly capacity of shovel = 3600×5×0.8×0.6/1.5×40 = 144 m3/hr

Question 3 A surface mine has 15 identical dumpers and two shovels. For shovel 1, the
dumper cycle time is 30 minutes and shovel loading time is 5 minutes. For shovel 2, dumper
cycle time is 32 minutes and shovel loading time is 4 minutes. Based on match factor
optimization, the ideal allocation of dumpers to shovel 1 and shovel 2 respectively is
Answer:
Match Factor = (No. of Dumpers × Shovel loading time)/ (No. of Shovels × Dumper cycle time)
For (6,9) MF1 = (6 × 5)/ (1 × 30) = 1
MF1 = (9 × 4)/ (1 × 32) = 1.125

For (9,6) MF1 = (9 × 5)/ (1 × 30) = 1.5

MF1 = (6 × 4)/ (1 × 32) = 0.75

For (7,8) MF1 = (7 × 5)/ (1 × 30) = 1.167

MF1 = (8 × 4)/ (1 × 32) = 1

Page 88 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002

Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

For (8,7) MF1 = (8 × 5)/ (1 × 30) = 1.333

MF1 = (7 × 4)/ (1 × 32) = 0.875
Question 5
For a development heading, blasting parameters are as follows:
Cross-section: 6 m × 5 m; Total no. of holes: 72; No. of trimmer holes: 30; Depth of each hole:
3.5 m; Charge per hole (except trimmer): 3.5 kg; Charge per trimmer hole: 1.8 kg; Pull per
round: 90% of hole depth. Calculate Powder Factor.
Answer:
Powder Factor = Production (m3)/ Explosive consumption (kg)
= (6 × 5 × 3.5 × 0.9)/ [(72 × 3.5) + (30 × 1.8)]
= 0.31
Question 6
A dragline is required to remove 3,00,000 m3 of rock per month. Calculate the bucket capacity
of the dragline. Consider the following data for dragline operation:
Effective working hour per month = 450; Bucket fill factor = 0.8; Cycle time = 65 seconds; Swell
factor = 1.25
Answer:
Production per hour by Dragline = 3,00,000/ 450 = 666.67 m 3
Hourly capacity of dragline = (3600 × fill factor × bucket capacity)/ (cycle time × swell factor)
666.67 = (3600 × 0.8 × bucket capacity)/ (65 × 1.25)
Bucket capacity = 18.80 m3
Question 7
An opencast mine has four benches. The height, width, and slope of each bench are 13 m, 30
m, and 700 respectively. Calculate the overall slope.
Answer:
No. of benches =4
Height of bench = 13 m
Width of bench = 30 m
Slope of bench = 700
Overall slope = tan-1 (4 × 13)/ [(3 × 30) + (4 × (13/tan 700)] = 25.50
Page 89 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002
Lecture Notes –Surface Mining Dr. Soumya Ranjan Mallick

REFERENCES

[1] Surface Mining Technology, S. K. Das, Lovely Prakashan, Dhanbad

[2] Surface Mining, G.B. Mishra, Geominetech Publications,

Bhubaneswar, 1st edition, 2007

[3] Open Pit Mine Planning and Design, W. Hustrulid and M. Kuchta,
Volume-1, A. A. Balkema, 1st Edition, 1995

[4] Elements of Mining Technology, Volume-1, D. J. Deshmukh, Denett &

Company, 2016

Page 90 of 90 Department of Mining Engineering, GCE-Keonjhar-758002