Introduction to Research Methods

Unit I (Syllabus)

Introduction to Research Methods: Definition of research, role and objectives of

research, applications and types of research, research process and steps in it. Collecting
and reviewing the literature, conceptualization and Formulation of a research problem,
Identifying variables, constructing hypothesis, Synopsis.

1.1 Introduction
Research is a scientific investigation. Investigation means a search for new facts and
ideas in any branch of knowledge. Thus, we can say that research is a search for
knowledge. Research may be considered as a movement, a movement from the unknown
to the known. It is actually a voyage of discovery.

Research is carried out for two purposes; one is the discovery of new facts and the
second, verification of the old ones. The object of every business organization, of course,
is the discovery of new facts, new relationship, and new laws governing the business
phenomena. But constant verification of the old concepts is also needed especially in
dynamic business environment.

Common sense knowledge, based on the accumulated experiences, prejudices and

beliefs of the people is often contradictory and inconsistent. On the other hand, scientific
observations are based on verifiable evidence or systematic body of proof that can be
cited. For example, some common sense statements are: man is more intelligent than
woman; married men remain happier than single people; rural people are more
hardworking than urban people etc. Contrary to this, the scientific research or scientific
inquiry finds that woman is as intelligent as man; there is no association in happiness and
marriage; hard work is not related to environment alone. Thus, a statement based on
common sense is just a guess or prejudice or mistaken interpretation, though at times it
may be true, wise and a useful bit of knowledge. But it is not based on any scientific
evidence. A scientific statement is based on accumulated systematic knowledge through
research.

1.2 Meaning and Definition of Research

In order to plan and carry out research, it is necessary to know what we mean by
research-in general, as well as in the specialized fields of business management.

“Research is an Organized and Systematic way of Finding answers to Questions.”

Systematic because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow.
There are certain things in the research process that are always done in order to get the
most accurate results.
 Organized in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a
planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.

Finding answers is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or
even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the
answer is no, but it is still an answer.

Questions are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no use.
Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question,
research has no focus, drive, or purpose.

The word research is derived from the Latin word meaning to know. It is a
systematic and a replicable process, which identifies and defines problems, within
specified boundaries. It employs well-designed method to collect the data and analyses
the results. It disseminates the findings to contribute to generalizeable knowledge.

Definitions: Various social and behavioural scientists have defined the word research in
different ways. Some of the most popular definitions are:

1. “Endeavour to discover facts by scientific study, course of critical investigation”, by

Pocket Oxford Dictionary.
2. “Systematic investigation to establish facts or collect information on the subject”, by
Collins Concise Dictionary.
3. “Research is systematized effort to gain new knowledge”, by Redman and
Mory.
4. “Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids
in construction of theory or in the practice of an art”, by Encyclopedia of Social
Sciences.

Thus, we can say that research is a systematic and objective attempt to study a
business problem for the purpose of deriving general principles. In other words, research
is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among phenomena.

1.3 Characteristics of Research

A well-organized research must possess certain characteristics features, which are as

follows:

1. Solution Oriented: The problem of research must be clearly defined and stated.
The motive of research must be mentioned in the beginning of research work. The
research should provide a solution of a business problem.
 2. Logical: In a research we find out facts about a phenomenon and draw
conclusions about it. The inferences and generalizations thus made must be
logical. For example, all illiterate people in the village live longer than the
educated people in the cities leads to the conclusions that illiteracy is the cause of
longevity. This is an example of illogical research conclusion.
3. Objective: Observing true picture of a phenomenon without being affected by
observers own opinion is termed as ‘objective’. Objectivity means knowing
reality. The criterion of objectivity is that all researchers should arrive at the same
conclusion about the phenomenon on which they are pursuing research.
4. Impartiality: A dishonest research may select data items of individuals to draw
conclusions to his favour. This brings bias into research, which affects the
objective of the study. Therefore’ a true research must be impartial and unbiased.
5. Accuracy: A research worker needs to gain some expertise in the study he is
undertaking. This expertise results in achieving the accuracy in the solution
drawn. The accuracy of conclusions is a sensitive issue as it may affect the whole
decision-making.
6. Systematic: In a research there should be well-defined steps. Each step should be
sequentially linked with another, so that, the whole research work is an organized
structure.
7. Verifiability: the results of a research are subjective to verifications. For building
a sound basis for decision making one verifies the research results by replicating
the study.
8. Empirical: A research is an empirical process and involves data collection. The
results are based on observed experience or empirical evidence. Research rejects
assumptions and dogma as methods of established knowledge. It accepts only
what is verified by empirical observations.

Characteristics of Research
1. Solution Oriented
2. Logical
3. Objective
4. Impartiality
5. Accuracy
6. Systematic
7. Verifiability
8. Empirical

1.4 Role and Significance of Research

A research study plays a very vital role in studying, understanding and solving a
business problem. Research is a process of obtaining dependable solutions through
systematic and scientific investigations. In the modern business environment where
operational problems are of complex nature, research provides a solution oriented
carefully designed procedures.

Research helps us to discover the functional relationships among various

phenomena that exist in a business or a government organization. Decision-making under
uncertainty is a fact in every sphere of a business. Research provides us inferences and
generalizations that help in forecasting the future happenings in the organization. All
private or government organizations form their policies on the basis of researches
conducted.

1.5 Objectives of Research

The main goal of research is to improve the quality and level of living in the society.
The purpose of a research study is to find out the hidden facts about a business
phenomenon. The obvious function of research is to add new knowledge to the existing
store. It serves the government and the business organizations in forming their future
policies. The objectives of a research study are listed below:

1. Understanding a business problem: The first and foremost objective of any study is
to understand, analyze and explore a business problem. Once complete familiarity with
the phenomenon is achieved, it is easier to decompose the complex problem into smaller
once.

2. Identifying the cause and effect relationship: Individuals form groups, and groups
form organizations. They are interdependent. It is very important for a researcher to
identify the functional relationships among various components of an organization. A
scientific investigation is necessary in studying the cause and effect relationship of
variables involved in a business phenomenon.

3. To innovate new ideas: One of the objectives of a researcher is to bring constant

improvement in the techniques of his trade. Apart from verifying and testifying the
existing assumptions, one of the functions of a research is to add new knowledge to the
state of the art. Research invokes the innovation of new concepts, theories and idea in a
business study. Apart from this, research also removes and discards worthless theories
that are prevalent in the society.

4. To improve the quality: The whole exercise of any activity is done for the
improvement of quality of a product, machinery, or life of human beings. For a business
organization it is atmost important to improve the quality of its products. This can be
achieved by a systematic and critical investigation i.e. research.

Objectives of Research
 1. Understanding a business problem
2. Identifying the cause and effect relationship
3. To innovate new ideas
4. To improve the Quality
1.6 Types of Research

Research is a multidimensional activity. It comes in various forms and is

used in all social, behavioral, educational, economical and management sciences.
According to the approach and method involved in a research, one can classify the
following types of research.

1. Descriptive v/s Analytical research

Descriptive research basically describes what is. It mainly involves

collection, recording, describing and analyzing the facts related to the study. It tries to
find the existing status, trend and state of affairs in a phenomenon. Descriptive research
involves surveys, but they are not merely data collection as they also involve
measurement, classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation. In this type of
research the variable under study are uncontrollable. One can only observe and report
what is happening in a situation.

Analytical research, on the other hand deals with what will be. In this type of
research, the variables involved are carefully and scientifically controlled and
manipulated. Analytical research is also known as experimental research and is a very
sophisticated technique. This kind of research is based on four important characteristics
namely; control, manipulation, observation and replication.

2. Applied v/s Fundamental research

Applied research is action oriented or solution oriented. The main goal of an

applied research is to obtain an immediate, specific and practical solution of a problem
that a business organization is facing right now. It gives here and now solutions in actual
problem situations. It involves scientific investigations but the methods are not so
rigorous as in fundamental research. It finds solutions to be applied in local environment
and they may not be universally acceptable. Applied research does not promise to add
new knowledge to the discipline.

Fundamental research is carried out to scientifically enhance the organized body of

knowledge of a discipline. Also know as basic research, it is concerned with formulation
of theory and generalizations of principles. To evaluate and expand a formulated theory it
may use empirical data. Basic research involves systematic, highly sophisticated scientific
techniques. Fundamental research may not suggest the solutions of immediate problems,
it rather draws long term conclusions.
 3. Quantitative v/s Qualitative research

Quantitative research is based on quantitative variables, which can be measured in

appropriate units. These involve objects and individuals that vary in size, quantity,
amount, scale or degree. For example, prices of commodity can be measured in rupees,
weight of a product is measured in kilograms and the mileage of vehicle is measured in
kilometers per liter.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is based on qualitative variables, which

vary in quality of type. These variables cannot be measured on a scale or in any units.
Social scientists use qualitative research for studying human behaviour. In market
research surveys qualitative research is carried out to investigate the likes and dislikes of
customers. It helps in understanding the current pattern of demand of a company’s
products.

4. Conceptual v/s Empirical research

Conceptual research involves the development of new theories, abstract ideas, and
generalized principles. Philosophers, intellectuals and thinkers carry out this kind of
research. On the basis of their conceptual knowledge they build theoretical models.
Conceptual research is an intellectual process to develop and verify knowledge.

Empirical research is based on observation and experimentation. The information

collected in the form of facts develops the conclusions and theories about a phenomenon.
The models, so developed, can again be verified by a replication of data collection. To
test a given hypothesis empirical research is most popular and powerful tool in the
modern world.

5. Other types of research:

Any research study is derivation of one or the other of above four types of
research. One can further classify a research on the basis of its purpose, time taken and
the discipline of knowledge it relates to. For example, Historical research is the study of
past events, historical documents, remains and relics. Clinical research is employed to
study the effects of a new drug. Market research is performed to forecast the potential
demand of a product. One- time research is carried out on a small scale in short period
with a specific purpose. Educational research is directed towards the study and
development of educational system. Social research is concerned with the social
problems of the society. Field research is done by going out in the field or market, where
as Laboratory research is carried out with in four walls of a laboratory.

Types of Research
1. Descriptive v/s Analytical research
2. Applied v/s Fundamental research
3. Quantitative v/s Quantitative research
4. Conceptual v/s Empirical research
5. Other types of research
1.7 Research Process

Research is a search for knowledge. It helps in taking appropriate decisions.

Research involves asking a question and then trying to find an answer to it. Research is
essentially a systematic, scientific and structured inquiry seeking facts through objective
methods. Therefore a research must have a clearly defined step-by-step process. A
knowledge of the research process is essential both for those who conduct the research
and for those who wish to be benefited by the conclusions drawn from the research. A
meaningful knowledge should have a definite purpose and direction.

In developing a research process, one would like to list the sequence of step-
bystep activities. In a research process these steps are inter- dependent and may overlap
each other. They may not follow a strict sequence and the researcher has to be vigilant of
their order continuously through out the research process. However, one can broadly
enlist the main steps involved in a research process as a procedural guideline to the
researcher. These steps are:

1. Problem formulation
2. Literature survey
3. Development of hypothesis
4. Research design
5. Choice of sample design
6. Data collection
7. Analysis and interpretation of data
8. Hypothesis testing
9. Interpretation of results
10. Report writing

The above procedure can be depicted in a diagrammatic form as shown in the flowchart
in figure 1.1. A brief description of the above steps is given below.

1. Problem formulation

Formulation of a problem is the first and foremost step in a research process. It is

not always easy to identify and define a problem in an ever-changing business
environment. A researcher not only discovers and defines a problem area but also a
specific problem within that area concerning his interest in business. The problem should
be clearly and precisely stated. The statement of the problem must be complete.
 The problems in a business may sometimes be obvious and one can pinpoint them.
Many a problems is not so apparent and needs explorations. Thus, first of all one has to
identify a problem specifically and thoroughly, and then it has to be expressed in
scientific terms so that statistical analysis can be performed on that problem.

2. Literature survey
After the formulation and identification of a problem, the next important step is
the review of literature survey. An exhaustive and critical review of professional literature
familiarizes the researcher with the current state of knowledge. It helps in understanding
of the problems and hypothesis that others have studied. It clarifies the concepts, theories,
major variables involved, operational definitions and research methods used in the past.
This contributes to the cumulative nature of scientific knowledge.

Every year thousands of articles, books and monographs are published in any field
of study. Therefore, it is important to sort out the relevant literature connected with the
field of one’s interest. It is best to begin any search for literature with one of the guides to
published literature. These guides are increasingly computerized and include
bibliographies, indexes and abstracts.

With the advent of Internet the modern life has changed drastically. One can find
an ocean of information within the four walls of one’s study room through Internet. Some
of the popular search engines like google, yahoo and rediff are becoming more popular in
searching for literature on any topic.

3. Development of hypothesis

Once a problem is defined and a review of literature is made, the next step is to
define clearly the hypothesis in a research problem. A hypothesis is a tentative
assumption in a research problem, which has to be tested empirically with the help of
observed data. When formulating a hypothesis, a researcher does not know whether it will
be rejected or accepted. A hypothesis is constructed and tested; if it is rejected, another
one is formulated; if it is accepted, it is incorporated in the scientific body of knowledge.

One should arrive at a clear and specific working hypothesis for which research
methods already exist. A good hypothesis states a research problem in concise and precise
terms so that the researcher is focused on the problem at hand.

4. Research design

A research design is a well-defined plan of action. It is a planned sequence of

the entire research process. It is a blue print of research activity. In a big business scenario
designing a research study is very complex. Therefore, a research design may change
during the operation of a project. A good research design must use minimum of resources
like time, money and manpower. A research design must be able to translate the general
scientific model into a practical research operation. A scientifically developed research
 design possess the characteristics like (i) objectivity (ii) Reliability ( iii) Validity (iv)
Generalization .
5. Choice of sample design

In any investigation the group of all items, objects or individuals under study
is called ‘population’ or ‘universe’. For all purpose of determining population
characteristics, instead of enumerating entire population, some items of the population,
called a sample, are observed. Then the sample characteristics are utilized to
approximately determine or estimate the population. For example, on examining the
sample of particular product, we arrive at a decision of purchasing or rejecting that
product. There will be surely some error in such an approximation and is inherent and
unavoidable in any and every sampling scheme. But samples results in considerable gains
in terms of time, money, accuracy and efforts.
Drawing a sample of some predetermined size from an entire population is not
a child’s play. These have to be a systematic plan to choose the sample items. This plan
or a technique of drawing a sample is known as sample design or sample plan or
sampling technique. Researchers have suggested various sample designs. One research
situation may be different from another, therefore, simple random sample, though most
popular, may not be suitable in each case. Depending on the requirement of a situation
one can choose one of the following sample designs:
1. Purposive or Judgment Sampling
2. Simple Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Systematic Sampling
5. Cluster Sampling
6. Area Sampling
7. Multi-stage Sampling
8. Multi-phase Sampling

6. Data collection:

Once a sample design is formulated, the next step in a research process is the
collection of relevant data. There can be two sources of data (i) Internal data, that refers
to the happenings and functions of a business organization. For example, the salepurchases
details of a company. (ii) External data, which is related to outside sources and external
agencies. There are two types of data (a) Primary data (b) Secondary data. Primary data are
those observations, which are collected by an investigator for the first time, Secondary data
are already available in the records and have been collected by some other researcher for the
purpose of studying a similar problem. Methods of collecting primary data are:
(i) by direct observation and experimentations
(ii) by direct personal interview
(iii) by direct interviews through phone, sms and email.
 (iv) by indirect personal interview
(v) by mailed / emailed Questionnaire
(vi) by schedules through enumerators
Methods of collecting secondary data:

(i) International organizations like WHO, UNO etc.

(ii) Government publications like economic survey, CSO, NSSO.
(iii) Journal and Newspapers (iv) Research articles
(v) Reports of business organization and financial institutions.

A method and source of data collection is chosen by an investigator taking into

account the objectives and requirements of the inquiry. The adopted method should incur
minimum cost and time should have a reasonable level of accuracy and unbiasedness.

7. Analysis and interpretation of data

After the collection of data, what we have is a huge chunk of observations and
numerical values. The data at the beginning are in raw form. For the purpose of applying
further statistical techniques, one has to put the raw data in a useful form by
classification, tabulation and categorization of data. If one has to feed the data in a
computer, the data should bear the same form as required by the software used. This kind
of processing of data involves one or more of the following activities: (i) coding (ii)
labeling (iii)editing (iv) tabulation (v) classification.

8. Hypothesis testing

After analyzing and processing of data, it is time now to test the hypothesis
that were formed in step 3 of the research process. A hypothesis is skeptically formulated
regarding the relationship between phenomena and variables involved in a study. Then by
empirical investigation the hypothesis is tested for possible acceptance or rejection. In other
words, the researcher decides on the basis of the observed facts that he has collected, whether
or not an assumption is valid. A hypothesis is tested by making use of a predefined decision
rules established in statistical methods. Some of the popular statistical tests are, Z- test, Chi-
square test, t- test and F- test.
In a situation where no hypothesis is formulated in a study, the observations
are made on the data directly and conclusions are drawn to formulate new generalizations
and assumptions for future purposes.

9. Interpretations of results

After the data collection and testing of hypothesis one has to reach to the
conclusions of the research study. These conclusions are the most vital outcomes of the
study and have to be dealt with very carefully. On the basis of findings of the research
 work done we draw inferences about the phenomenon under study. This is a useful
activity as without any outcome a research study is fruitless. The results obtained from
the analysis of data are to be interpreted skillfully. A wrong interpretation my lead to
wrong decisions. Interpretation may also lead to generalizations of the phenomena
understudy. It may also help in developing new theories and can suggest new research
problems to be explored in future.

10. Report writing

Last but not the least is the step of reporting the facts and findings of the research study. A report
is a summary of the whole research process. The layout of a report must be attractive. The words
used in the text must be easily comprehensive to a reader. Even a non- technical person
understands a good report. In the beginning of the report one should give the title, time period of
work, acknowledgement and preface. In the main text an introduction to the problem, summary
of findings, results and inferences, and then the recommendations of the researcher are given.
The report should conclude with appendices, bibliography and a subject or / and author indexes.