Module 1 : Diodes and its applications

DIODE | WORKING PRINCIPLE AND TYPES OF DIODES

What is a Diode?
A diode is a device which only allows unidirectional flow of current if operated within a rated
specified voltage level. A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction while the reverse
voltage is within a limited range otherwise reverse barrier breaks and the voltage at which this
breakdown occurs is called reverse breakdown voltage. The diode acts as a valve in the electronic
and electrical circuit. A P-N junction is the simplest form of the diode which behaves as ideally
short circuit when it is in forward biased and behaves as ideally open circuit when it is in the
reverse biased. Beside simple PN junction diodes, there are different types of diodes although
the fundamental principle is more or less same. So, a particular arrangement of diodes can
convert AC to pulsating DC, and hence, it is sometimes also called as a rectifier. The name diode
is derived from "di-ode" which means a device having two electrodes.
Symbol of Diode
The symbol of a diode is shown below, the arrowhead points in the direction of conventional
current
flow.

A simple PN junction diode can be created by doping donor impurity in one portion and acceptor
impurity in other portion of a silicon or germanium crystal block. These make a p n junction at
the middle portion of the block beside which one portion is p type (which is doped by trivalent
or acceptor impurity) and other portion is n type (which is doped by pentavalent or donor
impurity). It can also be formed by joining a p-type (intrinsic semiconductor doped with a
trivalent impurity) and n-type semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor doped with a pentavalent
impurity) together with a special fabrication technique such that a p-n junction is formed. Hence,
it is a device with two elements, the ptype forms anode and the n-type form the cathode. These
terminals are brought out to make the external connections.
Working Principle of Diode
The n side will have a large number of electrons and very few holes (due to thermal excitation)
whereas the p side will have a high concentration of holes and very few electrons. Due to this, a
process called diffusion takes place. In this process free electrons from the n side will diffuse
(spread) into the p side and combine with holes present there, leaving a positive immobile (not
moveable) ion in the n side. Hence, few atoms on the p side are converted into negative ions.

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Similarly, few atoms on the n-side will get converted to positive ions. Due to this large number
of positive ions and negative ions will accumulate on the n-side and p-side respectively. This
region so formed is called as depletion region. Due to the presence of these positive and negative
ions a static electric field called as "barrier potential" is created across the p-n junction of the
diode. It is called as "barrier potential" because it acts as a barrier and opposes the further
migration of holes and electrons across the junction.

In a PN junction diode when the forward voltage is applied i.e. positive terminal of a source is
connected to the p-type side, and the negative terminal of the source is connected to the n-type
side, the diode is said to be in forward biased condition. We know that there is a barrier potential
across the junction. This barrier potential is directed in the opposite of the forward applied
voltage. So a diode can only allow current to flow in the forward direction when forward applied
voltage is more than barrier potential of the junction. This voltage is called forward biased
voltage. For silicon diode, it is 0.7 volts. For germanium diode, it is 0.3 volts. When forward
applied voltage is more than this forward biased voltage, there will be forward current in the
diode, and the diode will become short circuited. Hence, there will be no more voltage drop
across the diode beyond this forward biased voltage, and forward current is only limited by the
external resistance">resistance connected in series with the diode. Thus, if forward applied
voltage increases from zero, the diode will start conducting only after this voltage reaches just
above the barrier potential or forward biased voltage of the junction. The time taken by this input
voltage to reach that value or in other words the time taken by this input voltage to overcome the
forward biased voltage is called recovery time.

Now if the diode is reverse biased i.e. positive terminal of the source is connected to the n-type
end, and the negative terminal of the source is connected to the p-type end of the diode, there
will be no current through the diode except reverse saturation current. This is because at the
reverse biased condition the depilation layer of the junction becomes wider with increasing

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 reverse biased voltage. Although there is a tiny current flowing from n-type end to p-type end in
the diode due to minority carriers. This tiny current is called reverse saturation current. Minority
carriers are mainly thermally generated electrons and holes in p-type semiconductor and n-type
semiconductor respectively. Now if reverse applied voltage across the diode is continually
increased, then after certain applied voltage the depletion layer will destroy which will cause a
huge reverse current to flow through the diode. If this current is not externally limited and it
reaches beyond the safe value, the diode may be permanently destroyed. This is because, as the
magnitude of the reverse voltage increases, the kinetic energy of the minority charge carriers also
increases. These fast-moving electrons collide with the other atoms in the device to knock-off
some more electrons from them. The electrons so released further release much more electrons
from the atoms by breaking the covalent bonds. This process is termed as carrier multiplication
and leads to a considerable increase in the flow of current through the p-n junction. The
associated phenomenon is called Avalanche Breakdown.

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Semiconductor materials (Si, Ge) are used to form variety of electronic devices. The most basic
device is diode. Diode is a two terminal P-N junction device. P-N junction is formed by bringing
a P type material in contact with N type material.When a P-type material is brought in contact
with N- type material electrons and holes start recombining near the junction. This result in lack
of charge carriers at the junction and thus the junction is called depletion region. Symbol of P-N
junction is given as:

Biased i.e. when voltage is applied across the terminals of P-N junction, it is called diode.
Diode is unidirectional device that allows the flow of current in one direction only depending on
the biasing.

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Forward Biasing Characteristic of Diode
When, P terminal is more positive as compared to N terminal i.e. P- terminal connected to
positive terminal of battery and N-terminal connected to negative terminal of battery, it is said to
be forward biased.

Positive terminal of the battery repels majority carriers, holes, in P-region and negative terminal
repels electrons in the N-region and push them towards the junction. This result in increase in
concentration of charge carriers near junction, recombination takes place and width of depletion
region decreases. As forward bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to reduce in width,
and more and more carriers recombine. This results in exponential rise of current.
Reverse Biasing Characteristic of Diode
In reverse biasing P- terminal is connected to negative terminal of the battery and N- terminal to
positive terminal of battery. Thus applied voltage makes N-side more positive than P-side.

Negative terminal of the battery attracts majority carriers, holes, in P-region and positive terminal
attracts electrons in the N-region and pull them away from the junction. This result in decrease
in concentration of charge carriers near junction and width of depletion region increases. A small
amount of current flow due to minority carriers, called as reverse bias current or leakage current.
As reverse bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to increase in width and no current
flows. It can be concluded that diode acts only when forward biased. Operation of diode can be
summarized in form of I-V diode characteristics graph. For reverse bias diode, V<0, ID = IS

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Where, V = supply voltage ID = diode current IS = reverse saturation current For forward bias,
V > 0, ID = IS(eV/NV T - 1)

Where,
VT = volt’s equivalent of temperature = KT/Q = T/11600
Q = electronic charge = 1.632 X 10 - 19 C
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10 – 23
N = 1, for Ge
= 2, for Si

As reverse bias voltage is further raised, depletion region width increases and a point comes
when junction breaks down. This results in large flow of current. Breakdown is the knee of diode
characteristics curve. Junction breakdown takes place due to two phenomena.
APPLICATIONS OF DIODES
• Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages
• Isolating signals from a supply
• Voltage Reference
• Controlling the size of a signal
• Mixing signals
• Detection signals
• Lighting
• Lasers diodes

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 HALF WAVE DIODE RECTIFIER
Electric current flows through a p - n junction diode when it is forward biased and we get output
current through the load. Let, we supply a sinusoidal voltage Vin = Vsinωt as a source voltage.
Now, if the input voltage is positive, the diode is forward biased and when that is negative, the
diode is in reverse bias condition. When the input voltage is positive, i.e, for the positive cycle
of the input voltage, the current flows through the diode.
So, the current will flow through the load also and we obtain output voltage across the load. But
for the negative half cycle of the input, the p-n junction get reverse biased and no current flows
through the diode as a result we obtain zero current and zero voltage across the load.
Circuit Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier
The basic diagram of half wave diode rectifier is given below,

For positive half cycle

For negative half cycle

Input voltage and Output Voltage Waveforms

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Now, different parameters for half wave rectifier is given below The average of load current
(IDC) : Let, the load current be iL = Imsinωt,

Ripple factor of half wave rectifier,

The rms value of the load current (Irms),

FULL WAVE DIODE RECTIFIER

The diode works only when it is in forward bias, only the current flows through p-n junction
diode and output current across the load is found. If two diodes are connected in such a way that
one diode conducts during one half of the input voltage and the other one conducts during the
next half of the cycle, in a unidirectional can flow through the load during the full cycle of the
impact voltage. This is known as full wave rectifier.
According to the diagram given below a center tapped transformer D1, and D2 are two p-n
junction diodes with similar characteristics D1 conducts for negative half of the output voltage.
Thus we get output voltage and the output current for the entire input cycle.
Circuit Diagram of Full Wave Diode Rectifier
The circuit diagram of the full wave diode rectifier given below,

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Full wave rectification can also be achieved using a bridge rectifier which is made of four diodes.

According to the figure, when D1 and D3 are forward biased, they conduct but D2 and D4 and
on D1 and D3 are reverse biased in both cases load current in the same direction.
Bridge rectifier has several advantages over simple full wave rectifier. It performance and
efficiency is better than that of the simple full time rectifier.

Now, different parameters for half wave rectifier is given below The average of load current (Idc)
: Let, the load current be iL = Imsinωt

Ripple factor of half wave rectifier,

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS
Rectifiers are the circuits used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Half-
Wave Rectifiers are designed using a diode (D) and a load resistor (RL) as shown in Figure 1. In
these rectifiers, only one-half of the input waveform is obtained at the output i.e. the output will
comprise of either positive pulses or the negative pulses only. The polarity of the output voltage
so obtained (across RL) depends on the direction of the diode used in the circuit of half-wave
rectifier. This is evident from the figure as Figure 1a shows the output waveform consisting of
only positive pulses while the Figure 1b has only negative pulses in its output waveform.

This is because, in Figure 1a the diode gets forward biased only during the positive pulse of the
input which causes the current to flow across RL, producing the output voltage.
Further for the same case, if the input pulse becomes negative, then the diode will be reverse
biased and hence there will be no current flow and no output voltage. Similarly for the circuit
shown in Figure 1b, the diode will be forward biased only when the input pulse is negative, and
thus the output voltage will contain only the negative pulses. Further it is to be noted that the
input to the half-wave rectifier can be supplied even via the transformer. This is advantageous as
the transformer provides isolation from the power line as well as helps in obtaining the desired
level of DC voltage. Next, one can connect a capacitor across the resistor in the circuit of half
wave rectifier to obtain a smoother DC output (Figure 2). Here the capacitor charges through the
diode D during the positive pulse of the input while it discharges through the load resistor RL
when the input pulse will be negative. Thus the output waveform of such a rectifier will have
ripples in it as shown in the figure.

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Different parameters associated with the half wave rectifiers are
1. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This is the maximum voltage which should be withstood by the
diode under reverse biased condition and is equal to the peak of the input voltage, Vm.
2. Average Voltage: This is the DC content of the voltage across the load and is given by Vm/π.
Similarly DC current is given as Im/π, where Im is the maximum value of the current.
3. Ripple Factor (r): It is the ratio of root mean square (rms) value of AC component to the DC
component in the output and is given by

Further, for half-wave rectifier, rms voltage is given as Vm/2 which results in the ripple factor of
1.21.
4. Efficiency: It is the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power and is equal to 40.6 %.
5. Transformer Utilization Factor: It is the ratio of DC power delivered to the load to the AC
rating
of the transformer secondary and is equal to 0.287.
6. Form Factor: This is the ratio of rms value to the average value and is thus equal to 1.57 for
halfwave rectifier.
7. Peak Factor: It is the ratio of peak value to the rms value and is equal to 2.
Half wave rectifiers are advantageous as they are cheap, simple and easy to construct. These are
quite rarely used as they have high ripple content in their output. However they can be used in
non-critical applications like those of charging the battery. They are also less preferred when
compared to other rectifiers as they have low output power, low rectification efficiency and low
transformer utilization factor. In addition, if AC input is fed via the transformer, then it might get
saturated which inturn results in magnetizing current, hysteresis loss and/or result in the
generation of harmonics. Lastly it is important to note that the explanation provided here applies
only for the case where the diode is ideal. Although for a practical diode, the basic working
remains the same, one will have to consider the voltage drop across the diode as well as its
reverse saturation current into consideration during the analysis.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS
The circuits which convert the input alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) are referred
to as rectifiers. If such rectifiers rectify both the positive as well as negative pulses of the input

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 waveform, then they are called Full-Wave Rectifiers. Figure 1 shows such a rectifier designed
using a multiple winding transformer whose secondary winding is equally divided into two parts
with a provision for the connection at its central point (and thus referred to as the centre-tapped
transformer), two diodes (D1 and D2) and a load resistor (RL). Here the AC input is fed to the
primary winding of the transformer while an arrangement of diodes and the load resistor which
yields the DC output, is made across its secondary terminals.

The circuit can be analysed by considering its working during the positive and the negative input
pulses separately.
Figure 2a shows the case where the AC pulse is positive in nature i.e. the polarity at the top of
the primary winding is positive while its bottom will be negative in polarity. This causes the top
part of the secondary winding to acquire a positive charge while the common centre-tap terminal
of the transformer will become negative.

This causes the diode D1 to be forward biased which inturn causes the flow of current through
RL along the direction shown in Figure 2a. However at the same time, diode D2 will be reverse
biased and hence acts like an open circuit. This causes the appearance of positive pulse across
the RL, which will be the DC output. Next, if the input pulse becomes negative in nature, then

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 the top and the bottom of the primary winding will acquire the negative and the positive polarities
respectively. This causes the bottom of the secondary winding to become positive while its
centre-tapped terminal will become negative. Thus the diode D2 gets forward biased while the
D1 will get reverse biased which allows the flow of current as shown in the Figure 2b. Here the
most important thing to note is the fact that the direction in which the current flows via RL will
be identical in either case (both for positive as well as for negative input pulses). Thus we get the
positive output pulse even for the case of negative input pulse (Figure 3), which indicates that
both the half cycles of the input AC are rectified.

Such circuits are referred to as (i) Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectifiers as they use a centre-tapped
transformer, (ii) Two-Diode Full-Wave Rectifiers because of the use of two diodes and/or (iii)
BiPhase Circuits due to the fact that in these circuits, the output voltage will be the phasor
addition of the voltages developed across the load resistor due to two individual diodes, where
each of them conducts only for a particular half-cycle. However as evident from Figure 3, the
output of the rectifier is not pure DC but pulsating in nature, where the frequency of the output
waveform is seen to be double of that at the input. In order to smoothen this, one can connect a
capacitor across the load resistor as shown by the Figure 4. This causes the capacitor to charge
via the diode D1 as long as the input positive pulse increases in its magnitude. By the time the
input pulse reaches the positive maxima, the capacitor would have charged to the same
magnitude. Next, as long as the input positive pulse keeps decreasing, the capacitor tries to hold
the charge acquired (being an energy-storage element).

However there will be voltage-loss as some amount of charge gets lost through the path provided
by the load resistor (nothing but discharging phenomenon). Further, as the input pulse starts to
go low to reach the negative maxima, the capacitor again starts to charge via the path provided

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 by the diode D2 and acquires an almost equal voltage but with opposite polarity. Next, as the
input voltage starts to move towards 0V, the capacitor slightly discharges via RL. This charge-
discharge cycle of the capacitor causes the ripples to appear in the output waveform of the full-
wave rectifier with RC filter as shown in Figure 4.
Different parameters and their values for the centre-tapped full-wave rectifiers are
1. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This is the maximum voltage which occurs across the diodes
when they are reverse biased. Here it will be equal to twice the peak of the input voltage, 2Vm.
2. Average Voltage: It is the DC voltage available across the load and is equal to 2Vm/π. The
corresponding DC current will be 2Im/π, where Im is the maximum value of the current.
3. Ripple Factor (r): This is the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of AC component to
the dc component at the output. It is given by

and will be equal to 0.482 as the rms voltage for a full-wave rectifier is given as

4. Efficiency: This is the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power and is equal to 81.2%.
5. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): This factor is expressed as the ratio of DC power
delivered to the load to the AC rating of the transformer secondary. For the full-wave rectifier
this will be 0.693.
6. Form Factor: This is the ratio of rms value to the average value and is equal to 1.11.
7. Peak Factor: It is the ratio of peak value to the rms value and is equal to √2 for the full-wave
rectifiers.
Further it is to be noted that the two-diode full-wave rectifier shown in Figure 1 is costly and
bulky in size as it uses the complex centre-tapped transformer in its design. Thus, one may resort
to another type of full-wave rectifier called Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier (identical to Bridge
Rectifier) which might or might not involve the transformer (even if used, will not be as
complicated as a centre-tap one). It also offers higher TUF and higher PIV which makes it ideal
for high power applications. However, it is to be noted that the full wave bridge rectifier uses
four diodes instead of two, which in turn increases the magnitude of voltage drop across the
diodes, increasing the heating loss. Full wave rectifiers are used in general power supplies, to
charge a battery and to provide power to the devices like motors, LEDs, etc. However, due to the
ripple content in the output waveform, they are not preferred for audio applications. Further these
are advantageous when compared to half-wave rectifiers as they have higher DC output power,
higher transformer utilization factor and lower ripple content, which can be made more smoother
by using π-filters. All these merits mask-up its demerit of being costly in comparison to the half-
wave rectifiers due to the use of increased circuit elements. At last, it is to be noted that the
explanation provided here considers the diodes to be ideal in nature. So, in case of practical

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 diodes, one will have to consider the voltage drop across the diode, its reverse saturation current
and other diode characteristics into account and reanalyse the circuit. Nevertheless, the basic
working remains the same.
BRIDGE RECTIFIERS
Bridge Rectifiers are the circuits which convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC)
using the diodes arranged in the bridge circuit configuration. They usually comprise of four or
more number of diodes which cause the output generated to be of the same polarity irrespective
of the polarity at the input. Figure 1 shows such a bridge rectifier composed of four diodes D1,
D2, D3 and D4 in which the input is supplied across two terminals A and B in the figure while
the output is collected across the load resistor RL connected between the terminals C and D.

Now consider the case wherein the positive pulse appears at the AC input i.e. the terminal A is
positive while the terminal B is negative. This causes the diodes D1 and D3 to get forward biased
and at the same time, the diodes D2 and D4 will be reverse biased.
As a result, the current flows along the short-circuited path created by the diodes D1 and D3
(considering the diodes to be ideal), as shown by Figure 2a. Thus the voltage developed across
the load resistor RL will be positive towards the end connected to terminal D and negative at the
end connected to the terminal C.

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 Next if the negative pulse appears at the AC input, then the terminals A and B are negative and
positive respectively. These forward biases the diodes D2 and D4, while reverse biasing D1 and
D3 which causes the current to flow in the direction shown by Figure 2b. At this instant, one has
to note that the polarity of the voltage developed across RL is identical to that produced when
the incoming AC pulse was positive in nature. This means that for both positive and negative
pulse, the output of the bridge rectifier will be identical in polarity as shown by the wave forms
in Figure 3.

However it is to be noted that the bridge rectifier's DC will be pulsating in nature. In order to
obtain pure form of DC, one has to use capacitor in conjunction with the bridge circuit (Figure
4).

In this design, the positive pulse at the input causes the capacitor to charge through the diodes
D1 and D3. However, as the negative pulse arrives at the input, the charging action of the
capacitor ceases and it starts to discharge via RL. This results in the generation of DC output
which will have ripples in it as shown in the figure. This ripple factor is defined as the ratio of
AC component to the DC component in the output voltage. In addition, the mathematical
expression for the ripple voltage is given by the equation

Where, Vr represents the ripple voltage.

Il represents the load current.

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 f represents the frequency of the ripple which will be twice the input frequency.
C is the Capacitance.
Further, the bridge rectifiers can be majorly of two types, viz., Single-Phase Rectifiers and Three
Phase Rectifiers. In addition, each of these can be either Uncontrolled or Half-Controlled or Full
Controlled. Bridge rectifiers for a particular application are selected by considering the load
current requirements. These bridge rectifiers are quite advantageous as they can be constructed
with or without a transformer and are suitable for high voltage applications. However here two
diodes will be conducting for every half-cycle and thus the voltage drop across the diodes will
be higher. Lastly one has to note that apart from converting AC to DC, bridge rectifiers are also
used to detect the amplitude of modulated radio signals and to supply polarized voltage for
welding applications.
ZENER DIODES
Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in reverse
biased condition. But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not
used as Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction
diode.
Working Principle of Zener Diode:
When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider. If this reverse
biased voltage across the diode is increased continually, the depletion layer becomes more and
more wider. At the same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation current due to minority
carriers.
After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get sufficient kinetic
energy due to the strong electric field. Free electrons with sufficient kinetic energy collide with
stationary ions of the depletion layer and knock out more free electrons. These newly created
free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due to the same electric field, and they create
more free electrons by collision cumulatively. Due to this commutative phenomenon, very soon,
huge free electrons get created in the depletion layer, and the entire diode will become
conductive. This type of breakdown of the depletion layer is known as avalanche breakdown,
but this breakdown is not quite sharp. There is another type of breakdown in depletion layer
which is sharper compared to avalanche breakdown, and this is called Zener breakdown. When
a PN junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity atoms will be high in the
crystal. This higher concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher concentration of ions in
the depletion layer hence for same applied reverse biased voltage, the width of the depletion
layer becomes thinner than that in a normally doped diode.
Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field strength across the depletion
layer is quite high. If the reverse voltage is continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage,
the electrons from the covalent bonds within the depletion region come out and make the
depletion region conductive. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. The voltage at which
this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage. If the applied reverse voltage across the diode is
more than Zener voltage, the diode provides a conductive path to the current through it hence,
there is no chance of further avalanche breakdown in it. Theoretically, Zener breakdown occurs
at a lower voltage level then avalanche breakdown in a diode, especially doped for Zener

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 breakdown. The Zener breakdown is much sharper than avalanche breakdown. The Zener
voltage of the diode gets adjusted during manufacturing with the help of required and proper
doping. When a zener diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source voltage is more
than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remains fixed irrespective of the source
voltage. Although at that condition current through the diode can be of any value depending on
the load connected with the diode. That is why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling
voltage in different circuits.
The circuit symbol of a Zener diode is also shown below.

Characteristics of a Zener Diode

Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical representation of
the operation of the zener diode. Normally, it is called the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode.
The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of a zener diode. When the diode is connected
in forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias voltage is greater
than zener voltage, a sharp breakdown takes place. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the
zener voltage. It is also the knee voltage because at this point the current increases very rapidly.

Operation of Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 A rectifier with an appropriate filter serves as a good source of d.c. output. However, the major
disadvantage of such a power supply is that the output voltage changes with the variations in the
input voltage or load. Thus, if the input voltage increases, the d.c. output voltage of the rectifier
also increases. Similarly, if the load current increases, the output voltage falls due to the voltage
drop in the rectifying element, filter chokes, transformer winding etc. In many electronic
applications, it is desired that the output voltage should remain constant regardless of the
variations in the input voltage or load. In order to ensure this, a voltage stabilising device, called
voltage stabiliser is used. Several stabilising circuits have been designed but only zener diode as
a voltage stabiliser.
A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source
whose voltage may vary over sufficient range. The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig (i). The
zener diode of zener voltage Vz is reverse connected across the load RL across which constant
output is desired. The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so as to maintain
constant voltage across the load. It may be noted that the zener will maintain a constant voltage
Vz (= E0) across the load so long as the input voltage does not fall below Vz
fig (i)

Fig- (ii)

When the circuit is properly designed, the load voltage E0 remains essentially constant (equal to
Vz) even though the input voltage Ei and load resistance RL may vary over a wide range.
(i) Suppose the input voltage increases. Since the zener is in the breakdown region, the zener
diode is equivalent to a battery VZ as shown in Fig (ii). It is clear that output voltage remains
constant at VZ (= E0). The excess voltage is dropped across the series resistance R. This will
cause an increase in the value of total current I. The zener will conduct the increase of current in

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.
 I while the load current remains constant. Hence, output voltage E0 remains constant irrespective
of the changes in the input voltage Ei.
(ii) Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance RL decreases. This will
cause an increase in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source because drop
in R (and hence source current I) will not change as the zener is within its regulating range. The
additional load current will come from a decrease in zener current IZ. Consequently, the output
voltage stays at constant value. Voltage drop across R = Ei − E0
Current through R, I = IZ + IL
Applying Ohm’s law, we have

Note: For analysis the Bridge rectifier and Problems related to Voltage regulator and
rectifiers refer class notes.

Prof. K.Punithavathi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SOET, CMR University, Bengaluru.