Workshop Practice

Course Code: ME F112

Sem-II 2022-23

Course Instructors
Dr. Anuj Sharma; Dr. Amit Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
333031 (Rajasthan) INDIA
 Workshop Practice (ME F112)

Lecture 2: Engineering Materials

Learning Objective: To get familiar with

different class of materials

Topics to be covered: Basic overview of

engineering materials, properties, and applications

Workshop Practice (ME F112 )

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani
 Historic perspective
 Materials are very important in development of human
civilization. In respect, their names are associated in
history, e.g. stone age, Bronze age, Iron age, etc.

 With time, humans discovered new materials and also

techniques to produce known materials. This is an
ongoing process for coming centuries, i.e. no end in sight!
Introduction to Engineering Materials
“Without materials, there is no engineering.”

• Engineering Requires Consideration of Materials

The right materials for the job - sometimes need a new one.

Objective: Develop an awareness of materials and their

properties that, as an engineer, you must rely in the future.
 Knowledge of Materials is Important?

Example –
Screwdriver

1. Screw head

2. Bar
III
3. Screw handle II
I
What happens when
we get it wrong?

Why did Titanic sink in

1912?

It was built with the wrong steel (containing excessive ratios

of sulphur and phosphor) which undergo brittle fracture at
low temperature.
 Introduction: What are materials?

Definitions:
• Matter that human beings use and/or process
• All matter used to produce manufactured or consumer goods.

Used in aggregate form Becomes a

A rock is not a
(ex: concrete) by material
material
humans
 Introduction: What are materials?

A tree is not a When it is processed Becomes a

material and used by people material

Natural dyes,
scented oils, tar,
pitch, and menthol

A Skin is not a Removed from host Becomes a material

and processed (turned into artifact)
material

A fish bag
 Engineering Materials

Materials which are used by engineers to design

and develop manmade structures, devices, and
components to perform intended functions

New and improved materials can stimulate –

• Innovation in all branches of engineering
• Making possible new designs for –
 structures
 appliances
 engines
 electrical and electronic devices
 processing and much more.
 Primary Classes of Engg. Materials

1. Metals (e.g. aluminum, iron, and titanium)

2. Ceramics (e.g. Al2O3, Fe3C, and SiC)
3. Polymers (e.g. acrylic, polyethylene, and nylon)

• Other “classes”
• Composites
• Semiconductors (e.g. silicon, germanium, and SiC)
• Biomaterials

10
 Metals, Ceramics, and Polymers

• Composition
• Structure/Bonding
• Properties

aluminum glass plastic

Callister, Materials Science and Engineering:

An Introduction (2003) 11
 Atomic Bonding in Solids
 Two questions need to be answered: why the atoms are
clustered together?, and how they are arranged?

 Bonds are two kinds – Primary, and Secondary

 Primary bonds – relatively stronger. Exists in almost all solid

materials.
E.g.: Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic bonds.

 Secondary bonds – relatively weaker bonds. Exists in many

substances like water along with primary bonds.
E.g.: Hydrogen, and van der Waals forces.
 Metals
Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as
iron, aluminium, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel),

+ + + + “sea of electrons
Metallic Bond
• one, two, or three valence electrons + + + +
• valence electrons free to drift through the
entire material forming a “sea of electrons” + + + + ionic
surrounding net positive ionic cores cores
+ + + +
• non-directional bond

Properties
• good conductors of
electricity and heat
• lustrous appearance
• susceptible to
corrosion
• strong, but
deformable
Ceramics:
Compounds formed with metallic and non-metallic elements.
They are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
Examples: aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica,
SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), clay minerals (i.e., porcelain),
cement, and glass. Coulombic bonding force

Ionic Bond
+ +
• composed of metallic and non-metallic elements
• metallic elements give up valence electrons to + +
non-metallic elements
• all atoms have filled “inert gas” configuration + +
• ionic solid
+ +
• non-directional bond

Properties:
Brittle, glassy
Hard and Strong
Non-conducting (insulators)
Optical characteristics – can be
transparent, translucent, or opaque
Polymers (plastics or rubber):
• Many polymers are organic compounds that are chemically based on
carbon, hydrogen, and other non-metallic elements (O, N, and Si).
• Very large molecular structures and often chain-like in nature.
shared H
shared
electron from
electron from
hydrogen
carbon
Covalent Bond H C H
• electrons are shared between adjacent
atoms, each contributing at least one
electron
methane (CH4)
• shared electrons belong to both atoms H
• directional bond

Properties
• very large molecules
• low density, light weight
materials
• maybe extremely flexible
• Soft, ductile, low strength
 Polymer structures

Schematic presentation of polymer structures.

Individual mers are represented by solid circles.
Composites:
A composite consist of two (or more) individual materials
formed from metals, ceramics, and/or polymers.

The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of

properties that is not displayed by any single material, and also
to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials.

Example: fibreglass
Made of small glass fibres
embedded within a polymeric
material (epoxy).

Properties:
stiff, strong
flexible, and ductile
 Advanced materials

Semiconductors:

Have electrical properties that are intermediate between the

electrical conductors (metals and metal alloys) and insulators
(ceramics and polymers).
Examples: gallium arsenide, germanium, Silicon.

Biomaterials:

Employed as components implanted into the human body for

replacement of diseased or damaged body parts.
Biocompatible - must not cause adverse biological reactions.
Can be metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, or
semiconductors.
Engineering Properties of Materials

What are some • Mechanical

general • Electrical
categories of
• Thermal
properties of
engineering • Magnetic
materials? • Optical
• Deteriorative
Mechanical Properties of Engg. Materials
Tensile test to determine the mechanical properties

The internal
resistance of the
Tensile stresses are ‘+’ and
material is called
compressive stresses are ‘–’. stress.
Engineering Stress-strain diagram
Strain hardening Necking

Tensile strength or
ultimate tensile
strength of the
material. Fmax/Ao.
 Engineering Stress – Engineering Strain
 Load applied acts over an area.
 Parameter that characterizes the load effect is given as load
divided by original area over which the load acts. It is
called conventional stress or engineering stress or simply
stress. It is denoted by s.
 Corresponding change in length of the object is
characterized using parameter – given as per cent change
in the length – known as strain. It is denoted by e.

P L  L0
s ,e 
A0 L0
 As object changes its dimensions under applied load,
engineering stress and strain are not be the true
representatives.
 True Stress – True Strain
 True or Natural stress and strain are defined to give true
picture of the instantaneous conditions.

 True strain:
L1  L0 L2  L1 L3  L2
    ...
L0 L1 L2
Engineering Stress-strain diagram
 Elastic deformation
 A material under goes elastic deformation first followed by
plastic deformation. The transition is not sharp in many
instances.

 For most of the engineering materials, complete elastic

deformation is characterized by strain proportional to
stress. Proportionality constant is called elastic modulus or
Young’s modulus, E.

    E
where E = modulus of elasticity, MPa, a measure of the inherent
stiffness of a material.
Modulus of elasticity of different materials
Engineering vs True stress-strain curve

True stress

Engineering stress

True stress-strain curve

Engineering stress-strain curve
Difference between brittle and ductile materials
 Toughness of the material
Toughness is a measure of energy absorbed until fracture

It is the combination of both

strength and ductility is
required for high toughness
value.
 Strain hardening, or work hardening

Strain hardening, or work hardening as it is often called, is an

important factor in certain manufacturing processes, particularly metal
forming.

The relationship between true stress and true strain in the

plastic region can be expressed as
𝝈 = 𝑲 𝜺𝒏 Elastic part

σ = 𝐾 𝜀𝑛
This equation is called the flow curve,
• The constant K is called the strength
coefficient, MPa,
• The parameter n is called the strain Strain hardening
hardening exponent,  

• Its value is directly related to a metal’s

tendency to work harden.
 Types of Stress–Strain Relationships
Hooke’s law σ = E ε governs the metal’s behavior in the elastic
region, and the flow curve 𝝈 = 𝒌 𝜺𝒏 determines the behavior in
the plastic region.
Three basic forms of stress–strain
Perfectly elastic Elastic and perfectly plastic Elastic and strain hardening.

K > Y and n > 0.

Brittle materials such as K = Y and n = 0.

ceramics, many cast irons, Most ductile metals
and thermosetting polymers Lead exhibits this behaviour behave this way
Or metals at high temperature when cold worked
These materials are not good
candidates for forming operations.
 HARDNESS

Resistance to localized deformation

Or
Resistance to indentation and/or scratching
Brinell Hardness Test The Brinell hardness test is widely used for testing metals
and nonmetals of low to medium hardness.
In the test, a hardened steel (or cemented carbide)
ball of 10-mm diameter is pressed into the surface
of a specimen using a load of 500, 1500, or 3000
kg. The load is then divided into the indentation
area to obtain the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN).
 Ferrous materials - Classification
 For an engineer, especially, metals are more important
owing to ability to carry loads and ease of manufacturing.

 Metallic materials are again classified for ease of selection

and/or based on their tonnage of usage broadly into two
classes – ferrous and non-ferrous.

 Ferrous materials – chief constituent is iron (Fe). E.g.: steel,

cast iron.

 Metallic materials those are not ferrous are termed as non-

ferrous materials. E.g.: Brass, Silver, Aluminium, Titanium.
 Ferrous materials - Classification
 There are two classes – steels and cast irons – categorized
based on carbon content.
 Steels: % C is up to 2.14%
Cast irons: % C is above 2.14%
 Cast irons are called so because they are usually manufactured
through casting technique owing to their brittle nature due to
presence of iron carbide.
 Steels are serving major part of present engineering applications.
 However, cast irons mostly serve as structural components.
E.g.: automobile motor casings, lathe bed, sliding guides in
machinery.
 Steels
 In steels, C atoms occupies interstitial sites of Fe.
 Steels are classified based on their C content/alloying additions
which in turn dictates their applications: plain carbon steels and
alloying steels.
 Plain carbon steels
 Low-carbon steels: % wt of C < 0.3
 Medium carbon steels: 0.3 <% wt of C < 0.6
 High-carbon steels: % wt of C > 0.6 and upto 2%
 Alloy Steel:
 High Strength Structural Steel
 Tool Steels
 Stainless steel
Low carbon steels:
- Carbon present is not enough to strengthen them by heat treatment, hence are
strengthened by cold work.
- They are easily weldable and machinable.
- Typical applications: tin cans, automotive body components, structural shapes, etc.
 Steels (contd….)
 Medium carbon steels:
- They are less ductile and stronger than low carbon steels.
- Hardenability is increased by adding Ni, Cr, Mo.
- Typical applications: gears, railway tracks, machine parts.

 High carbon steels:

- They are strongest and hardest of carbon steels.
- Heat treatable. Used in hardened conditions.
- Alloying additions – Cr, V, W, Mo
-Typical applications: Knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc
where high wear resistance is the prime requirement.
 High Strength Structural Steel
E.g.. HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels:
- They can be strengthened by heat treatment.
- Ductile and formable.
- Alloying addition – Cu, V, W, Ni, Cr, Mo, etc.
- Typical applications: support columns, pressure vessels, bridge beams.

 Tool Steels: tungsten 18%, chromium 4%, vanadium 1%, carbon and 0.75–
1%, rest iron.
General properties are: Wear and abrasion resistance, toughness, red
hardness, non-deforming property and minimum cost.

 Stainless steels:
-18% Cr, 8% Ni along with C, Si, and Mn,
 Effect of alloying elements:
Nickel (Ni) Provides toughness, impact strength, tensile strength, ductility,
corrosion resistance and deep hardening.

Chromium (Cr) Improves corrosion resistance, toughness and hardenability

due to formation of chromium carbides,

Tungsten (W) Increases strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance,

and high hot hardness (resistance to softening at higher temperature)

Manganese (Mn) Deoxidizes, improves strength and hardness, and tougness,

higher strength at elevated temperature,

Silicon (Si) Deoxidizes, gives resistance to high temperature oxidation,

improves elastic limit, provides hardness and high magnetic permeability
 Effect of alloying elements:
Molybdenum (Mo) Promotes hardenability, increases tensile strength and creep
strength at high temperature, increases wear resistance,

Vanadium (V) Deoxidizes, promotes fine-grained structure, gives strength,

toughness and improved hardening quality and hardness at elevated temperatures

Cobalt (Co) Improves hardness, toughness, tensile strength, thermal resistance

and magnetic properties

Copper (Cu) Improves strength and resistance to atmospheric corrosion

Thank
you