03 Signals
03 Signals
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Analog vs. Digital Data
Analog data
Data take on continuous values
E.g., human voice, temperature reading
Digital data
Data take on discrete values
E.g., text, integers
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Analog vs. Digital Signals
To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals
value
Analog signals
have an infinite number of
values in a range time
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Data and Signals
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Periodic Signals
A periodic signal completes a pattern
within a timeframe, called a period
A signal x(t) is periodic if and only if
value
period
time
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Sine Waves
Simplest form of periodic signal
signal strength
period
T = 1/f
peak
amplitude
time
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Sine Waves
Example: The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its
frequency in kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
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Sine Waves
Three sine waves with the same amplitude & frequency, but different phases
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Sine Waves
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
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Varying Sine Waves
A = 1, f = 1, = 0 A = 2, f = 1, = 0
A = 1, f = 2, = 0 A = 1, f = 1, = /4
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Time vs. Frequency Domains
Consider the signal
+ =
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Time vs. Frequency Domains
1 1
0 0
2 4 time 2 4 frequency
-1 -1
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Time vs. Frequency Domains
The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
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Example:
Graphic
Equalizer
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Fourier Analysis
Any periodic signal can be represented
as a sum of sinusoids Joseph Fourier
(1768-1830)
known as a Fourier Series
E.g., a square wave:
+ + + +…
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Fourier Analysis
Every periodic signal consists of
DC component
AC components
Fundamental frequency (f0)
Harmonics (multiples of f0)
DC component
AC components
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Fourier Series: Representations
Amplitude-phase form
Sine-cosine form
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Fourier Series: Representation
Amplitude-phase representation
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Fourier Series: Representation
Euler formula representation
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Non-periodic Signals
Consider a pulse train of period T, and the
width of each pulse is
x(t)
T
-/2 /2 t
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Non-periodic Signals
x(t) X(f)
T t f0 f
x(t) X(f)
T t f0 f
x(t) X(f)
T= t f
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The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
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Frequency Spectrum
Frequency domain representation shows
the frequency spectrum of a signal
E.g., square wave
...
0 0 f0 3f0 5f0 7f0 9f0 11f0
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Frequency Spectrum
Cutoff frequency
(half of power is lost)
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Bandwidth of a Medium
gain (low-pass channel)
1
freq
...
Transmission medium
0 f0 3f0 5f0 7f0 9f0 f 0 f0 3f0 5f0 f
t t
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Example
What is the bandwidth of this signal?
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Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
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Digital Signals
Properties:
Bit rate – number of bits per second
Bit interval – duration of 1 bit
amplitude
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
...
time
bit interval
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Bit rate: Example
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits, the bit rate is
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Bit rate: Example
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Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
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The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals
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Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission
Sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing it to an analog signal
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Note
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Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
(where the entire bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel)
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In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate the digital
signal with an analog signal. The level of approximation depends on the
bandwidth available.
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Low-pass channel with limited bandwidth
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To make the shape of the analog signal look more like that of a digital
signal, we need to add more harmonics of the frequencies. We need to increase
the bandwidth. We can increase the bandwidth to 3N/2, 5N/2, 7N/2, and so on.
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Using one harmonic
Digital Analog
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 sec
Digital Analog
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Digital Analog
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
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Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements
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Example 3.22: What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if
we need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?
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Digital vs. Analog Bandwidth
Digital bandwidth
Expressed in bits per second (bps)
Analog bandwidth
Expressed in Hertz (Hz)
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Low-Pass and Band-Pass Channels
Low-pass channel
gain
f1 frequency
Band-pass channel
gain
f1 f2 frequency
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Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass channel
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Transmission Impairment
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Signal Attenuation
Attenuation Loss of energy
Signal strength falls off with distance
Transmission medium
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Relative Signal Strength
Measured in Decibel (dB)
dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1)
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Example
Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
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Example
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Example
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Signal Distortion
Distortion Change in signal shape
Only happens in guided media
Propagation velocity varies with frequency
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Noise
Noise Undesirable signals added
between the transmitter and the receiver
Types of noise
Thermal
Due to random motion of electrons in a wire
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Noise
Types of noise (cont’d)
Crosstalk
Signal from one line picked up by another
Wire 1
Wire 2
Impulse
Irregular pulses or spikes
E.g., lightning
Short duration
High amplitude
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
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Example
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:
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Data Rate: Noiseless Channels
Nyquist Theorem
Harry Nyquist
(1889-1976)
Bit rate in bps
Bandwidth in Hz
L – number of signal levels
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Example
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Example
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Example
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
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Example
Solution
First, use the Shannon capacity
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Network Performance
Bandwidth
Hertz
Bits per second (bps)
Throughput
Actual data rate
Bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link;
Throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we
can send data.
Latency (delay)
Time it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination
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Throughput
Example: A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can
pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute with
each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is
the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
propagation
time
transmission
time
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Latency
Sender Receiver
Propagation time
First bit arrives
Data bits
Last bit leaves Transmission time
Time Time
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Example
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Example
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a
2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1
Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender and the
receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
Note that in this case, because the message is short and the
bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the propagation time,
not the transmission time. The transmission time can be ignored.
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Bandwidth-Delay Product
The link is seen as a pipe
Cross section = bandwidth
Length = delay
Bandwidth-delay product defines the
number of bits that can fill the link
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Figure Filling the link with bits for case 1
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Data is sent in bursts and sender needs to wait for the acknowledgment of
each burst before sending the next one. To use the maximum capability of
the link, we need to send a burst of data of (2 × bandwidth × delay) bits.
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Summary
Data need to take form of signal to be
transmitted
Frequency domain representation of signal
allows easier analysis
Fourier analysis
Medium's bandwidth limits certain
frequencies to pass
Bit rate is proportional to bandwidth
Signals get impaired by attenuation,
distortion, and noise
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