Unit

UNIFORM FLOW Lecture No 1

No
Topic Definition, Differences between pipe flow and open channel flow
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 Define pipe flow and open channel flow. K1
LO2 Understand and differentiate pipe flow and open channel flow. K2

Introduction
Open-channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none. A free surface is subject
to atmospheric pressure. In Pipe flow, there exists no direct atmospheric flow but hydraulic pressure
only.

The two kinds of flow are compared in the figure above. On the left is pipe flow. Two
piezometers are placed in the pipe at sections 1 and 2. The water levels in the pipes are maintained
by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by the hydraulics grade line or hydraulic
gradient.
The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is shown in the tube by the
height y of a column of water above the centre line of the pipe.
The total energy of the flow of the section (with reference to a datum) is the sum of the elevation z
of the pipe centre line, the piezometric head y and the velocity head V /2g , where V is the mean
velocity. The energy is represented in the figure by what is known as the energy grade line or the
energy gradient .
The loss of energy that results when water flows from section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf.
A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown to the right. This is simplified by
assuming parallel flow with a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the channel is
small. In this case the hydraulic gradient is the water surface as the depth of water corresponds to
the piezometric height.
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems of
flow in open channels than in pipes. Flow conditions in open channels are complicated by the
position of the free surface which will change with time and space. And also by the fact that depth
of flow, the discharge, and the slopes of the channel bottom and of the free surface are all inter
dependent.
Physical conditions in open-channels vary much more than in pipes - the cross-section of
pipes is usually round - but for open channel it can be any shape.
Treatment of roughness also poses a greater problem in open channels than in pipes.
Although there may be a great range of roughness in a pipe from polished metal to highly corroded
iron, open channels may be of polished metal to natural channels with long grass and roughness that
may also depend on depth of flow.
 Open channel flows are found in large and small scale. For example the flow depth can vary
between a few cm in water treatment plants and over 10m in large rivers. The mean velocity of flow
may range from less than 0.01 m/s in tranquil waters to above 50 m/s in high-head spillways. The
range of total discharges may extend from 0.001 l/s in chemical plants to greater than 10000 m 3 /s
in large rivers or spillways.
In each case the flow situation is characterised by the fact that there is a free surface whose
position is NOT known beforehand - it is determined by applying momentum and continuity
principles.
Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by pressure work as in pipes.
Definition
Pipe flow
A pipe is a closed conduit which carries water under pressure. The flow in a pipe completely fills
the cross-section and there is no free surface of the water is termed as pipe flow.
Open channel flow
The flow of liquid on a free surface(i.e., surface exposed to atmosphere) through any passage is
known as open channel. The liquid flowing through any closed passage without touching the top
can also be termed as open channel flow.
Examples:
(i) Flow in a natural waterfall, river and stream
(ii) Flow in artificial or man-made channels such as irrigation channels and flumes
(iii) Closed conduit or pie carrying liquid partially (sewers that carry domestic or industrial
wastewater)

Difference between pie flow and open channel flow

Pipe flow Open channel flow
(i) In pipe flow, the flow takes place by Open channel flow takes place by gravity force
hydraulic pressure

(ii) Pipes are generally circular in cross-section

Open channels may have any shape such as
triangular, rectangular, trapezoidal and circular
(iii) Hydraulic Gradient line(HGL) does not HGL coincides with the water surface
coincide with the water surface

(iv) Velocity distribution is symmetrical about The shape of the velocity profile is dependent on
the pipe axis the channel roughness

(v) The maximum velocity occurs at the centre Maximum velocity occurs at a little distance
of the pipe below the water surface

(vi) Flow cross-section is fixed Flow cross-section depends on the depth of flow

(vii) Liquid runs full, no free surface Open channel flow has free surface

(viii) Surface tension force is dominant if Surface tension is negligible, only considered at
diameter is small a very low depth

(ix) Analysis of flow becomes simpler than Analysis is complicated due to non-uniform
open channel flow due to uniform cross- cross-section, bed slope and roughness
section
Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.N
Question Answer Knowledge
o
Level
1 What is open channel flow?
a) Flow in a closed pipe
b) Flow in an open channel b K1
c) Flow in a porous medium
d) Both a and b
2 Which of the following is NOT a type of open channel
flow
a) Rivers
b) Pipes b K1
c) Canals
d) Streams
3 What is the primary driving force in open channel flow?
a) Pressure
b) Gravity b K1
c) Friction
d) Velocity

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Marks CO Bloom’s
Q.No Question Knowledge
Level
1 Describe open channel flow (NOV/DEC 2023) 2 1 K1
2 Differentiate between pipe flow and open channel flow 16 1 K2
(APR/MAY 2023)

Reference Book:
1. Dr.R.K Bansal , “Fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi
publications(P) Ltd”.
 Unit
UNIFORM FLOW Lecture No 2
No
Topic Types of flow
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 Define the various types of flow. K1
LO2 Understand the flow conditions K2

Types and regimes/ classification of open channel flow

The following classifications are made according to change in flow depth with respect to time and
space

(i) Based on the variation of flow with respect to time:

(a) Steady flow

When the flow properties such as the depth or discharge at a section do not change with
time, it is said to be steady flow
(b) Unsteady flow
When the flow properties at a section change with time, it is termed as unsteady flow
(ii) Based on the variation of flow with respect to distance:
(a) Uniform Flow: Space as the criterion.
Open Channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at
every section of the channel. Hence it follows that uniform flow can only occur in prismatic
channels.
For steady uniform flow, depth and velocity is constant with both time and distance. This
constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel. It occurs when gravity forces
are in equilibrium with resistance forces.
(b) Steady non-uniform flow.
Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow may be either (a) gradually
varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the application of the energy and frictional
resistance equations while type (b) requires the energy and momentum equations.
Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.N
Question Answer Knowledge
o
Level
1 The Froude number is used to determine
a) Flow regime in a pipe
b) Type of flow in an open channel a K1
c) Pipe roughness
d) Channel slope
2 What is the critical Froude number for tranquil flow in
an open channel?
a) 0.5
b) 1.0 b K1
c) 1.5
d) 2.0
3 In an open channel flow, what does supercritical flow
indicate?
a) Submerged flow
b) Rapid flow b K1
c) Slow flow
d) Steady flow

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Marks CO Bloom’s
Q. No Question Knowledge
Level
1 Describe Froude number (APR/MAY 2024) 2 1 K1
2 Describe flow based on Froude number.(NOV/DEC 2023) 2 1 K1
3 Explain the classification of flow in open channels with 16 1 K2
neat sketches. (APR/MAY 2023)
4 Explain the types and properties of open channel flow. 16 1 K2
(NOV/DEC 2023)

Reference Book:
1. Dr.R.K Bansal , “Fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi
publications(P) Ltd”.
 Unit
UNIFORM FLOW Lecture No 3
No
Topic Properties of open channel
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 Define the properties of open channel flow. K1
LO2 Explain the properties of open channel flow K2
Properties of open channels
Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals, navigation canals,
spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular cross-
section shape throughout - and are thus prismatic channels (they don't widen or get narrower along
the channel.
In the field they are commonly constructed of concrete, steel or earth and have the surface
roughness' reasonably well defined (although this may change with age - particularly grass lined
channels). Analysis of flow in such well defined channels will give reasonably accurate results.
Natural channels
Natural channels can be very different. They are neither regular nor prismatic and their
materials of construction can vary widely (although they are mainly of earth this can possess many
different properties.) The surface roughness will often change with time distance and even
elevation.

Consequently it becomes more difficult to accurately analyze and obtain satisfactory results for
natural channels than is does for manmade ones. The situation may be further complicated if the
boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and deposition of sediments.

(a) Geometric properties necessary for analysis

For analysis various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are required. For artificial
channels these can usually be defined using simple algebraic equations given y the depth of flow.
The commonly needed geometric properties are shown in the figure below and defined as:
 (i) Depth(y) - the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to the free
surface.
(ii) Stage (z) - the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
(iii) Area (A) - the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction of flow
(iv) Wetted perimeter (P) - the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction
of flow.
(v) Surface width (B) - width of the channel section at the free surface
(vi) Hydraulic radius (R) - the ratio of area to wetted perimeter ( A / P )
(vii) Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) - the ratio of area to surface width ( A / B )

(b) Flow characteristics:

(i) Pressure is constant along the water surface
(ii) Open channel flow takes place by gravitational force
(iii) Pressure is approximately hydrostatic
(iv) Flow in open channel is turbulent and unaffected by surface tension

Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.No Question Answer Knowledge
Level
1 Which parameter is used to classify the flow regime in an
open channel?
a) Manning’s Coefficient
c K1
b) Hydraulic Radius
c) Froude Number
d) Specific Energy
2 What is the formula for hydraulic radius (R)? c K1
a) R = AxP
b) R = P/A
 c) R = A/P
d) R = A/T
3 What does a Froude number less than 1 indicate?
a) Supercritical Flow
b) Subcritical Flow b K1
c) Critical Flow
d) Uniform Flow

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Marks CO Bloom’s
Q. No Question Knowledge
Level
1 What are the properties of open channels? (APR/MAY 2 1 K1
2019)
2 Explain the types and properties of open channel flow. 16 1 K2
(NOV/DEC 2023)

Reference Book:
1. Dr.R.K Bansal , “Fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi
publications(P) Ltd”.

Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 4
No No
Topic Fundamental equations
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 Define the fundamental equations in uniform flow K1
LO2 Define the energy equations K1
LO3 Define the momentum equations K1
LO4 Write the various type of channels K1

Fundamental equations
The equations which describe the flow of fluid are derived from three fundamental laws of physics:
1. Conservation of matter (or mass)
2. Conservation of energy
3. Conservation of momentum
Although first developed for solid bodies they are equally applicable to fluids. Brief descriptions of
the concepts are given below.
Conservation of matter
This says that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, but it may be converted (e.g. by a
chemical process.) In fluid mechanics we do not consider chemical activity so the law reduces to
one of conservation of mass.
Conservation of energy
This says that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but may be converted form one type
to another (e.g. potential may be converted to kinetic energy). When engineers talk about energy
"losses" they are referring to energy converted from mechanical (potential or kinetic) to some other
form such as heat. A friction loss, for example, is a conversion of mechanical energy to heat. The
basic equations can be obtained from the First Law of Thermodynamics but a simplified derivation
will be given below.
Conservation of momentum
The law of conservation of momentum says that a moving body cannot gain or lose
momentum unless acted upon by an external force. This is a statement of Newton's Second Law of
Motion: Force = rate of change of momentum
In solid mechanics these laws may be applied to an object which is has a fixed shape and is
clearly defined. In fluid mechanics the object is not clearly defined and as it may change shape
constantly. To get over this we use the idea of control volumes. These are imaginary volumes of
fluid within the body of the fluid. To derive the basic equation the above conservation laws are
applied by considering the forces applied to the edges of a control volume within the fluid.
The Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)
For any control volume during the small time interval ?t the principle of conservation of
mass implies that the mass of flow entering the control volume minus the mass of flow leaving the
control volume equals the change of mass within the control volume.If the flow is steady and the
fluid incompressible the mass entering is equal to the mass leaving, so there is no change of mass
within the control volume.
So for the time interval, t : Mass flow entering = mass flow leaving
Considering the control volume above which is a short length of open channel of arbitrary cross-
Section then, if p is the fluid density and Q is the volume flow rate then section then, if mass flow
rate is ? Q and the continuity equation for steady incompressible flow can be written
pQentering = pQleaving
As, Q, the volume flow rate is the product of the area and the mean velocity then at the upstream
face (face 1) where the mean velocity is u and the cross-sectional area is A1 then:
Qentering = u1A1
Similarly at the downstream face, face 2, where mean velocity is u2 and the cross-sectional area
is A2 then:
Qleaving= u2A2
Therefore the continuity equation can be written as
u1A1 = u2A2
The Energy equation (conservation of energy):
Consider the forms of energy available for the above control volume. If the
fluid moves from the upstream face 1, to the downstream face 2 in time d t over the
length L.
The work done in moving the fluid through face 1 during this time is

Where p1 is pressure at face 1

Work done = p1A1L

The mass entering through face 1 is

Mass entering = p1A1L

Therefore the kinetic energy of the system is:

KE = mu2 = p1A1Lu12

If z1 is the height of the centroid of face 1, then the potential energy of the fluid entering the control
volume is :

PE = mgz = p1A1Lgz1

The total energy entering the control volume is the sum of the work done, the potential and the
kinetic energy:

Total energy = p1A1L + p1A1Lu12 + p1A1Lgz1

We can write this in terms of energy per unit weight. As the weight of water entering the control
volume is ?1 A1 L g then just divide by this to get the total energy per unit weight:

Total energy per unit weight = p1/p1g + u12 + z1

 At the exit to the control volume, face 2, similar considerations deduce
Total energy per unit weight = p2/p2g + u22 + z2

If no energy is supplied to the control volume from between the inlet and the outlet then energy
leaving = energy entering and if the in compressible

p1/p1g + u12 + z1 + p2/p2g + u22 + z2 = H = constant

This is the Bernoulli equation.

Note:
1. In the derivation of the Bernoulli equation it was assumed that no energy is lost
in the control volume - i.e. the fluid is frictionless. To apply to non frictionless
situations some energy loss term must be included.

The dimensions of each term in equation 1.2 has the dimensions of length ( units of meters). For
this reason each term is often regarded as a "head" and given the names
P/pg=pressure head
U2/2g = velocity head
Z=velocity or potential head
3. Although above we derived the Bernoulli equation between two sections it
should strictly speaking be applied along a stream line as the velocity will differ
from the top to the bottom of the section. However in engineering practise it is
possible to apply the Bernoulli equation with out reference to the particular
streamline
The momentum equation (momentum principle)
Again consider the control volume above during the time,t
Momentum entering = p Q1 tu1
Momentum entering = p Q2 tu2
By the continuity principle: = d Q1 = dQ2 = dQ
And by Newton's second law Force = rate of change of momentum
It is more convenient to write the force on a control volume in each of the three, x, y and z direction
e.g. in the x-direction
Integration over a volume gives the total force in the x-direction as
Fx = pQ(V2x - V1x)
As long as velocity V is uniform over the whole cross-section.
This is the momentum equation for steady flow for a region of uniform velocity.
Energy and Momentum coefficients
In deriving the above momentum and energy (Bernoulli) equations it was
noted that the velocity must be constant (equal to V) over the whole cross-section or
constant along a stream-line.
Clearly this will not occur in practice. Fortunately both these equation may still be used even for
situations of quite non-uniform velocity distribution over a section. This is possible by the
introduction of coefficients of energy and momentum, a and respectively.

where V is the mean velocity.

And the Bernoulli equation can be rewritten in terms of this mean velocity:
P/pg + aV2/2g + z = constant
And the momentum equation becomes:
Fx = pQB(V2x - V1x)
The values of and must be derived from the velocity distributions across a cross-section. They will
always be greater than 1, but only by a small amount consequently they can often be confidently
omitted - but not always and their existence should always be remembered.
For turbulent flow in regular channel a does not usually go above 1.15 and will normally be below
1.05.

Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q. No Question Answer
Knowledge Level
1 B K1
What is the primary characteristic of
uniform flow in an open channel?

a) Constant flow velocity

b) Varying flow depth
c) Irregular channel bed
d) Fluctuating discharge

2 B K2
Which of the following channels is more
likely to have laminar flow in uniform
conditions?

a) Steep, rocky channel

b) Wide, grassy channel
c) Narrow, concrete channel
d) Deep, sandy channel

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Mark CO Bloom’s
Qn
Question s Knowledge
No
Level
1 What are rigid channels ( AU apr 12) 2 CO301.1 K2
2 What are non erodible channels? ( AU dec 12, nov 14) 2 CO301.1 K2
3 What are prismatic channel? (b AU jun 13) 2 CO301.1 K2
4 Diffrentiate between prismatic and non prismatic 2 CO301.1 K2
channel?
5 Write about fundamental equations? 13 CO301.1 K2

Reference Book
1. Dr.R.K Bansal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi
publications(P) Ltd”.

Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 5
No No
Topic Sub-critical, super-critical and critical flows
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 Define critical flow K1
LO2 Sketch the velocity distribution of a trapezoidal channel section K2
LO3 Define alternate depth K1
LO4 Write aboumannings and chezys equation for uniform steady flow K2

Sub-critical flow:
If the Froude number(f) is less than ‘1’, it is called sub-critical flow (or) tranquil flow (or)
streaming flow in open channels. Subcritical flow is deep, slow flow with a low energy state.
Critical flow:
If Froude number (F) is equal to ‘1’, it is called critical flow.
Features of critical flow:
(i) The specific energy and specific force are minimum for the given discharge
(ii) Froude number is equal to unity
(iii) For a given specific energy, the discharge is maximum at the critical flow
(iv) The velocity head is equal to half of the hydraulic depth in a channel of the small slope.
(v) Flow at critical state is unstable

Super-critical flow:
If the Froude number (F) is more than ‘1’, it is called super critical flow in open channels.
F > 1, i.e., water velocity < wave velocity
Super critical flow is shallow, fast flow with a high energy state.

Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 6
No No
Topic Velocity distribution in open channel
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 How can stickler equation be used to calculate roughness co K2
efficient?
LO2 Sketch the velocity distribution of a trapezoidal channel section K1
LO3 Define alternate depth K1
LO4 Write about mannings and chezys equation for uniform steady flow K2

Velocity distribution in open channels

The following points were observed based on the field experiments. Velocities at different locations
are taken in a cross section of a channel and lines are drawn at equal velocities as shown in figure.

(a) The velocity is zero at the solid boundaries and it gradually increases with distance from the
boundary
(b) The maximum velocity of the cross-section occurs at a distance of 0.2y from the free
surface, where y = depth of flow
(c) Average velocity Vav occurs at a level of 0.6y from the free surface
 (d) Otherwise, the following formula is used for average velocity calculation,
V 0.2+V 0.8
Vav = ¿
2
V0.2 = velocity of water at 0.2y from the free surface
V0.8 = velocity of water at 0.8y from the free surface

Surface velocity Vs is related to the average velocity Vav as

Vav = k Vs

The measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across the channel section
because of friction along the boundary. Neither is this velocity distribution usually axis symmetric
(as it is in pipe flow) due to the existence of the free surface. It might be expected to find the
maximum velocity at the free surface where the shear force is zero but this is not the case. The
maximum velocity is usually found just below the surface.
The explanation for this is the presence of secondary currents which are circulating from the
boundaries towards the section centre and resistance at the air/water interface. These have been
found in both laboratory measurements and 3d numerical simulation of turbulence.
The figure below shows some typical velocity distributions across some channel cross sections. The
number indicates percentage of maximum velocity.

If the channel is divided as shown into three regions and making the assumption that α = 1 for each
then

where
Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 7
No No
Topic Steady uniform flow: Chezy’s equation
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 How can stickler equation be used to calculate roughness co K2
efficient?
LO2 Sketch the velocity distribution of a trapezoidal channel section K1
LO3 Define alternate depth K1
LO4 Write about mannings and chezys equation for uniform steady flow K2

Steady Uniform flow

When uniform flow occurs gravitational forces exactly balance the frictional
resistance forces which apply as a shear force along the boundary (channel bed and
walls) .

Figure of forces on a channel length in uniform flow

Considering the above diagram, the gravity force resolved in the direction of flow is

and the boundary shear force resolved in the direction of flow is

In uniform flow these balance

Considering a channel of small slope, (as channel slopes for unifor and
gradually varied flow seldom exceed about 1 in 50) then
So

The Chezy equation

If an estimate of τ o can be made then we can make use of Equation.

If we assume the state of rough turbulent flow then we can also make the
assumption the shear force is proportional to the flow velocity squared i.e.

Substituting this into equation gives

Or grouping the constants together as one equal to C

This is the Chezy equation and the C the “Chezy C”

Because the K is not constant the C is not constant but depends on

Reynolds number and boundary roughness (see discussion in previous section).
 The relationship between C and is easily seen be substituting equation
1.9 into the Darcy- Wiesbach equation written for open channels and is

Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.No Question Answer Knowledge
Level
1 A K1
What type of channel is commonly associated with
Manning's equation for uniform flow calculations?

a) Trapezoidal channel
b) Circular channel
c) Rectangular channel
d) All of the above

2 B K2
In Manning's equation, what does 'n' represent?

a) Channel width
b) Manning's roughness coefficient
c) Flow depth
d) Gravitational constant

3 C K1
What is the primary factor that affects the flow
velocity in a channel with Manning's equation?

a) Channel width
b) Channel slope
c) Channel roughness
d) Channel depth

4 B K2
In a natural river with uniform flow, what typically
 happens to the channel slope as you move
downstream?

a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) Varies randomly

A K2
What is the primary advantage of using the Chezy
equation for uniform flow calculations?

a) Simplicity and ease of use

b) Accuracy for all types of channels
c) Applicability to turbulent flows only
d) Dependence on channel roughness

B K1
In the Chezy equation V=C√ RS, what does 'C'
represent?

a) Channel width
b) Chezy coefficient
c) Channel slope
d) Channel depth

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture
Mark CO Bloom’s
Qn
Question s Knowledge
No
Level
1 Calculate the bottom slope and conveyance ‘k’ of a 2 CO301.1 K2
rectangular flume of width 500mm and depth of flow
300mm having adjustable bottom slope with a flow of
100 lps. Take chezys’s constant as 56.NOV?DEC 2023)
2 Explain velocity distribution in open channel flow 2 CO301.1 K2
(NOV/DEC 2023)
3 Define alternate depth 2 CO301.1 K2

Reference Book
Dr.R.K Banjal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”.
Dr.A.K.Jain , “fluid mechanics including hydraulics machines” published by khanna publishers.
 Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 8
No No
Topic Steady uniform flow: Manning equation
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 How can stickler equation be used to calculate roughness co K2
efficient?
LO2 Sketch the velocity distribution of a trapezoidal channel section K1
LO3 Define alternate depth K1
LO4 Write about mannings and chezys equation for uniform steady flow K2

The Manning equation

A very many studies have been made of the evaluation of C for different natural and
manmade channels. These have resulted in today most practicing engineers use some form of this
relationship to give C:

This is known as Manning’s formula, and the n as Manning’s n . Substituting equation 1.9
in to 1.10 gives velocity of uniform flow: Or in terms of discharge

Note:

Several other names have been associated with the derivation of this formula – or
ones similar and consequently in some countries the same equation is named after one of these
people. Some of these names are; Strickler, Gauckler, Kutter, Gauguillet and Hagen.

The Manning’s n is also numerically identical to the Kutter n .

The Manning equation has the great benefits that it is simple, accurate and now due to it
long extensive practical use, there exists a wealth of publicly available values of n for a very
wide range of channels.
 Below is a table of a few typical values of Manning’s n

Conveyance

Channel conveyance, K , is a measure of the carrying capacity of a channel. The K is really

an agglomeration of several terms in the Chezy or Manning's equation:

So

Use of conveyance may be made when calculating discharge and stage in compound
channels and also calculating the energy and momentum coefficients in this situation.
Factors affecting Manning’s roughness coefficient:
The factors affecting Manning’s roughness coefficients are as follows:
(i) Surface roughness
(ii) Vegetation growth
(iii) Channel irregularities
(iv) Scoring
(v) Stage (water surface elevation) and discharge
(vi) Transport of suspended and bed material.
Chezy’s and Manning’s equations are based on extensive experimental investigations which are
 universally accepted.
Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.No Question Answer Knowledge
Level
1 A K1
What type of channel is commonly associated with
Manning's equation for uniform flow calculations?

a) Trapezoidal channel
b) Circular channel
c) Rectangular channel
d) All of the above

2 B K2
In Manning's equation, what does 'n' represent?

a) Channel width
b) Manning's roughness coefficient
c) Flow depth
d) Gravitational constant

3 C K1
What is the primary factor that affects the flow
velocity in a channel with Manning's equation?

a) Channel width
b) Channel slope
c) Channel roughness
d) Channel depth

4 B K2
In a natural river with uniform flow, what typically
happens to the channel slope as you move
downstream?

a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) Varies randomly
 A K2
What is the primary advantage of using the Chezy
equation for uniform flow calculations?

a) Simplicity and ease of use

b) Accuracy for all types of channels
c) Applicability to turbulent flows only
d) Dependence on channel roughness

B K1
In the Chezy equation V=C√ RS, what does 'C'
represent?

a) Channel width
b) Chezy coefficient
c) Channel slope
d) Channel depth

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Marks C Bloom’s
Q.No Question O Knowledge
Level
1 State the application of Manning’s formula.(NOV?DEC 2 1 K1
2023)
2 Define alternate depth 2 1 K1
3 Explain velocity distribution in open channel flow 2 1 K2
(NOV/DEC 2023)

Reference Book
1. Dr.R.K Banjal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”.
 Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 9
No No
Topic Best hydraulic cross section
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able Bloom’s
to Knowledge Level
LO1 Explain about Best hydraulic cross section K2
LO2 Explain about Computation in uniform flow K2
LO3 Define critical slope? K1

Best Hydraulic Cross- Section

We often want to know the the minimum area A for a given flow Q, slope S0 and roughness
coef- ficient n.

This is known as the best hydraulic cross section

2/3
The quantity ARh in Mannings’ equation is called the section factor

Writing the Manning equation with Rh = A/P, we get

Rearranged we get

 ( inside ) is a constant; Channel with minimum A is also minimum P

 Minimum excavation area A also has minimum P
 Best possible is semicircular channel, but construction costs are high
Let’s find out what the best hydraulic cross section is for a rectan- gular channel
Example: Water flows uniformly in a rectangular channel of width b and depth y. Determine the
aspectratio b/yforthe besthydraulic cross section.
  Note for 1 < b/y < 4; Q ˜ .96 Qmax

Must include freeboard f in design between 5 to 30% of yn

Table gives Optimum properties of Open Channel Sections

.For trapezoid, half- hexagon

.For circular section, half- circle

.For triangular section, half- square

Design of Erodible Channels

Design velocity V small enough not to cause erosion

Find maximum permissible velocity based on channel material

(Roberson, Table 4- 3)
Material V(ft/s) n

Fine Sand 1.50 0.020

Sandy loam 1.75 0.020

Silt loam 2.00 0.020

Firm loam 2.50 0.020

Stiff clay 3.75 0.025

Fine gravel 2.50 0.025

Coarse gravel 4.00 0.025

Assuming a trapezoidal channel, maximum side slopes depend on material

(Roberson,Table 4-2)

Maximum Channel Wall Slopes for Different Materials

Material Side Slopes

Rock Almost Vertical

Stiff clay or earth with concrete 1/2 : 1 to 1:1

Firm Soil 1:1

Loose sandy soil 2:1

Sandy loam soil 3:1

Once Q, V, n, S0 are determined, solve for depth y and width b.

Problem: For an unlined trapezoidal irrigation canal in firm loam soil, slope is 0.0006 and flow is
100 cfs, what dimensions?

For side slope, pick slope of 1 1/2 (h): 1 (v) (conservative)

Vmax = 2.5 ft/s, n = 0.020

To find Rh
 So if

2
A = by + 1.5y and P = b +3.61y

b = 18.1 ft and y = 1.91 ft

To construct choose b = 18 ft and y = 2.0 ft.

Critical Slope

 Holding n and Q constant, changing slope slope will change depth and velocity

 Where velocity and depth give a Froude number =1, this is defined as the critical slope Sc
and crit- ical depth yc

1.8 Computationsin Uniform Flow

We can use Manning's formula for discharge to calculate steady uniform flow. Two
calculations are usually performed to solve uniform flow problems.

1. Discharge from a given depth

2. Depth for a given discharge

In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal depth.

As we have already mentioned, and by definition, uniform flow can only occur in channels
of constant cross-section (prismatic channels) so natural channel can be excluded. However we will
need to use Manning's equation for gradually varied flow in natural channels - so application to
natural/irregular channels will often be required.
Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.No Question Answer Knowledge
Level
1 Which of the following characteristics makes a A K1
hydraulic cross-section optimal for flow?
a) High hydraulic radius
b) High width-to-depth ratio
c) Sharp corners
d) Irregular shape
2 Which hydraulic cross-section shape offers the least C K2
resistance to flow?
a) Rectangular
 b) Parabolic
c) Circular
d) Trapezoidal
3 In a rectangular channel, what would improve its A K1
hydraulic efficiency?
a) Increasing the channel width
b) Decreasing the channel slope
c) Decreasing the channel depth
d) Adding roughness to the channel bed
4 Which cross-sectional shape is preferred for urban C K2
drainage systems due to its capacity and ease of
construction?
a) Circular
b) Rectangular
c) Trapezoidal
d) Irregular

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Mark CO Bloom’s
Qn
Question s Knowledge
No
Level
1 Explain about Best hydraulic cross section 13 CO301.1 K2
2 Explain about Computation in uniform flow 6 CO301.1 K2
3 Define critical slope? 2 CO301.1 K2

Reference Book:
1. Dr.R.K Banjal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”.

Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 10
No No
Topic Computation in uniform flow
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able Bloom’s
 to Knowledge Level
LO1 Solve the problem K3

Uniform flow Problem 1 - Discharge from depth in a trapezoidal

channel

A concrete lined trapezoidal channel with uniform flow has a normal depth is
2m. The base
width is 5m and the side slopes are
equal at 1:2
Manning's n can be taken as 0.015 and the bed slope S◦ = 0.001

Use equation to get the discharge

The simplest way to calculate the mean velocity is to use the continuity equation:
And the Reynolds number (R=A/P)

This is very large - i.e. well into the turbulent zone - the application of the
Manning's equation was therefore valid.

What solution would we have obtained if we had used the Colebrook-White equation?

Probably very similar as we are well into the rough-turbulent zone where both
equations are truly applicable.

To experiment an equivalent k s value can be calculated for the discharge

calculated from n =
0.015 and y = 2m [ ks = 2.225mm ] (Use the Colebrook-White equation and
the Darcy- Wiesbach equation of open channels - both given earlier). Then a range
of depths can be chosen and the discharges calculated for these n and ks values.
Comparing these discharge calculations will give some idea of the relative
differences - they will be very similar.
Uniform flow Problem 2 - Depth from Discharge in a trapezoidal channel

Using the same channel as above, if the discharge is know to be 30m 3 /s in uniform
flow, what is the normal depth?

Again use equation

Even for this quite simple geometry the equation we need to solve for normal depth
is complex. One simple strategy to solve this is to select some appropriate values of y
and calculate the right hand side of this equation and compare it to Q (=30) in the
left. When it equals Q we have the correct y .
pFroorpMerotireesVisit :

Even though there will be several solutions to this equation, this strategy generally
works because we have a good idea of what the depth should be (e.g. it will always
be positive and often in the range of 0.5-10 m). In this case from the previous
example we know that at Q = 45 m3 /s, y = 2m . So at Q = 30 m3 /s then y < 2.0m.

We might also use the bisector method to solve this.

Uniform flow Problem 3 - A compound channel

If the channel in the above example were to be designed for flooding it may have a
section like this:

Figure of compound section

When the flow goes over the top of the trapezoidal channel it moves to the "flood
plains" so the section allows for a lot more discharge to be carried.
If the flood channels are 10m wide and have side slopes of 1:3, and the Manning n
 Formuka for each section to give three discharge values and
the total discharge will be Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q 3 .

Calculate the properties of each region:

The conveyance for each region may be calculated from equation.

And from Equations the discharges

The velocities can be obtained from the continuity equation:

 And the energy coefficient may be obtained from Equation

This is a very high value of a and a clear case of where a velocity coefficient should
be used.

Not that this method doe not give completely accurate relationship between stage and
discharge because some of the assumptions are not accurate. E.g. the arbitrarily
splitting in to regions of fixed Manning n is probably not what is occurring in the
actual channel. However it will give an acceptable estimate as long as care is taken in
choosing these regions.

Reference Book

Dr.R.K Banjal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”.
Dr.A.K.Jain , “fluid mechanics including hydraulics machines” published by khanna publishers.
 Lecture
Unit No UNIFORM FLOW 11
No
Topic Specific energy
Bloom’s
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able to
Knowledge Level
LO1 Define Critical flow and critical velocity K1
LO2 Explain about specific energy K2

Specific Energy

It is defined as energy per unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of the
channel. The extra information needed to solve the above problem can be provided
by the specific energy equation. Specific energy, Es, is defined as the energy of
the flow with reference to the channel bed as the datum:

Total Energy on open channel flow

Considering the channel bed as datum line, z=0

2
Specific Energy
From Specific Energy curve , Corresponding to the Minimum specific energy
E(min) ,there is only one depth of flow that is called Critical depth.
For steady flow this can be written in terms of discharge Q

For a rectangular channel of width b, Q/A = q/y

This is a cubic in y. It has three solutions but only two will be positive (so discard the
other).
 1.8 Critical Flow and Critical Velocity
Critical Flow
Depth of flow of water at which the specific energy. E is minimum is called as critical
depth (yc). For rectangular channel, critical depth,

Critical Velocity

Velocity of flow at the critical depth is called critical velocity Vc

Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Qn
Question Answer Knowledg
No
e Level
1 Which of the following equations represents A K1
the specific energy (E) in an open channel?
a) E = V^2/2g + y
b) E = V^2/2g – y
c) E = V^2/2g * y
d) E = V^2/2g / y

2 At what slope does a channel reach critical C K2

flow?
a) Subcritical slope
b) Supercritical slope
c) Critical slope
 d) Uniform slope

3 What is specific energy in open channel flow? A K1

a) Total energy per unit weight of fluid
b) Total energy per unit volume of fluid
c) Kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid
d) Potential energy per unit weight of fluid

4 What is the critical velocity in open channel D K2

flow?
a) The velocity at which flow becomes turbulent
b) The velocity at which flow becomes
subcritical
c) The maximum velocity attainable in the
channel
d) The velocity at which flow becomes
supercritical

5 Which parameter determines the critical C K2

velocity in open channel flow?
a) Channel slope
b) Channel width
c) Channel depth
d) Channel roughness

6 Which factor is not considered when D K1

determining critical slope in open channel
flow?
a) Channel roughness
b) Channel depth
c) Channel width
d) Channel velocity

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Mark CO Bloom’s
Qn
Question s Knowledge
No
Level
1 What is specific energy in open channel flow? 2 1 K1
(APR/MAY 2023)
2 Calculate the specific energy, critical depth and the 8 1 K2
velocity of the flow of 12m3 in cement lined
rectangular channel 3.5m wide with 2m depth of
water. Is the given flow is sub critical or super
 critical. (APR/MAY 2023)
3 Define Critical flow and critical velocity 2 1 K2

Reference Book

Dr.R.K Banjal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”.
Dr.A.K.Jain , “fluid mechanics including hydraulics machines” published by khanna publishers.

Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 12
No No
Topic Specific force
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able Bloom’s
to Knowledge Level
LO1 Define specific force K1
LO2 Determine the specific force for the given section K2

Specific force (Fs)

Specific force is the sum of the pressure force (F) and momentum force due to flow (M) per unit
weight of the liquid at a section.
F +M
Specific force, Fs =¿
γ
Where, γ = weight density of liquid
Concept of specific force:
Specific force is a key parameter in open channel flow, representing the momentum per unit weight of
water in the channel. It is an essential concept for analyzing flow transitions, hydraulic jumps, and
flow stability.
The specific force (Fs) is defined as:
Fs = (Q2 /gA) + yA,
where:
Q = discharge (m3/s),
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2),
y = flow depth (m).
The specific force consists of two components:
1. (Q2 /gA): The momentum flux term, related to flow velocity.
2. yA: The hydrostatic force term, related to the weight of water.
Relation to Specific Energy
Specific energy (E) and specific force (Fs) are both defined relative to the channel bottom. However,
they represent different physical properties:
Specific Energy (E): Represents the energy per unit weight of water:
E = y + (V2/ 2g)
where V = (Q / A) is the velocity.
Specific Force (Fs): Represents the momentum per unit weight of water:
Fs = (Q2/gA) + yA
Key Differences:
1. Specific energy focuses on energy (potential + kinetic), while specific force emphasizes
momentum (flow stability).
2. Both depend on flow depth (y) and discharge (Q), but their terms are derived from different
principles (energy vs. momentum).
Depth of Flow and Specific Force
The relationship between specific force and flow depth can be analyzed graphically or
mathematically. For a given discharge (Q), the specific force varies with y. The behavior is as
follows:
1. Critical Depth (yc): At the critical depth, the specific force is minimized for a given
discharge:
∂ Fs
=0
∂y
2. Subcritical and Supercritical Flow:
 Subcritical Flow (y>yc): Momentum is dominated by the hydrostatic term (yA).
 Supercritical Flow (y<yc): Momentum is dominated by the velocity term (Q2/gA).
Graphical Representation
The variation of specific force with depth is typically plotted as a curve for a fixed discharge.
Key points include:
 A minimum value at the critical depth (yc).
 Two possible depths (y1 and y2) for a given specific force, representing supercritical and
subcritical flow, respectively.
Practical Applications
1. Hydraulic Jumps: Specific force helps analyze energy dissipation and stability during
hydraulic jumps.
 Upstream depth (y1) and downstream depth (y2) are linked by the conservation of
specific force.
2. Flow Design: In spillways and open channels, specific force is considered for designing
transitions and avoiding instability.

Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.No Question Answer Knowledge
Level
 1 Specific force is -------- to mass flow rate
a) Directly proportional
b) Inversely proportional a K1
c) Independent
d) Not proportional
2 Specific force is -------- to cross sectional area
a) Directly proportional
b) Inversely proportional a K1
c) Independent
e) Not proportional
3 The concept of specific force is most useful in
analyzing:
a) Hydraulic jumps and flow transitions.
a K1
b) Channel bed erosion.
c) Flow velocity in a circular pipe.
d) Energy losses in pipes.

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Marks CO Bloom’s
Q.No Question Knowledge
Level
1 Define specific force 2 1 K1
2 Explain the concept of specific force in open channel
flow, and discuss how it is related to specific energy and
8 1 K2
the depth of flow. Use relevant equations and diagrams to
support your answer (APR/MAY 2023)

Reference Book
1. Dr.R.K Bansal, “Fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “Lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”.

Unit Lecture
UNIFORM FLOW 13
No No
Topic Problems- critical depth, velocity of flow, specific energy and flow properties
Learning Outcome (LO) At the end of this lecture, students will be able Bloom’s
to Knowledge Level
LO1 Define critical depth, velocity of flow, specific energy, and K1
 flow properties.
LO2 Solve problems related to flow characteristics and apply K2
code provisions to solve practical cases.

Specific energy in an open channel:

Specific energy in an open channel is the total energy per unit weight of a fluid at a given cross
section of a channel. It is the sum of the velocity head and the depth of the channel.

Explanation
 Specific energy is a useful tool for analyzing open channel flow and critical flow conditions.
 It's calculated by adding the velocity head (V2/2g ) to the depth of flow (y).
 The bottom of the channel is considered the datum, so the datum head is always zero.
 The potential energy increases linearly with depth, while the kinetic energy decreases
parabolically with depth.
 For a given discharge, the variation of specific energy with depth forms a cubic parabola.
 Critical flow occurs at the minimum specific energy.
Applications
 Specific energy is used to analyze open channel flow.
 It is used to analyze critical flow conditions.
 It is used to calculate critical flow properties in rectangular, triangular, and trapezoidal channel
cross-sections

Assessment questions to the lecture

Bloom’s
Q.No Question Answer Knowledge
Level
 1 Which property is minimized at critical depth?
a) Velocity
b) Specific energy b K1
c) Froude number
d) Discharge
2 Which of the following is NOT a type of open
channel flow
a) Rivers
b) Pipes b K1
c) Canals
d) Streams
3 What is the primary driving force in open channel
flow?
a) Pressure
b) Gravity b K1
c) Friction
d) Velocity

Students have to prepare answers for the following questions at the end of the lecture

Mark C Bloom’s
Q.
Question s O Knowledg
No
e Level
1 What is specific energy in open channel flow? (APR/MAY 2 1 K1
2023)
2 A rectangular open channel has a bottom width of 5m and a 16 1 K2
side slope of1:2. The channel carries a discharge of 12m3/s of
water. The Manning roughness coefficient for the channel is
0.025 Determine the critical depth, the velocity of flow, the
specific energy and the Froude number at a section where the
depth of the flow is 3m. Also, calculate the average velocity of
flow and the wetted perimeter at this section. Finally,
determine the best hydraulic section for uniform flow, and
calculate the depth and velocity of flow in this section.
Assume that the channel is made of concrete, with a Manning
roughness coefficient of 0.013 (APR/MAY 2023)
3 Calculate the flow properties of a 3.5m wide rectangular 16 1 K2
channel having a discharge of 14m3/s with a flow depth of
1.15m. (NOV/DEC 2023)

Reference Book
1. Dr.R.K Bansal , “fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines” published by “lakshmi publications(P)
Ltd”