1.

Computers
Computer: This is machine, electronic in nature, which accepts structured input,
processes it according to prescribed rules (Computer program) and produces the
results as an output.

Alternatively, computer is a device that works under the control of stored programs,
automatically accepting, storing, and processing data to produce information as a
result.
COMPUTER

PROCESS
DATA INFONRMATION
STORAGE

A diagrammatic representation of a computer

Fact / Data / Information

Fact: This is data which is true

Data: These are facts / observations about physical phenomena. In other words,
data is raw facts or isolated facts which may convey meaning.

Information: This is data, when seen in context, convey meaning to people. From
the system analysis point of view, information is data that has been manipulated to
be useful to the end user, i.e. information must have value, otherwise, it is still data.
It is worthwhile noting that one person's information may be another person's data.

Data

Information

Fact

Interrelationship between facts, data and information using set notation.

IC (Chip)

A computer can be looked at as a chip which processes data into information,

therefore, this fact emphasizes the need to define and categorize chips / IC.

IC is an abbreviation for Integrated Circuit. In electronics, IC refer to the packing of

circuit elements, such as transistors and resistors, on to a single chip of silicon
crystal or other material. ICs are categorized by the number of element they hold,
and accordingly, there exist the following IC categories:
SSI Small Scale Integration < 10 elements

MSI Medium Scale Integration 10-100 elements

LSI Large Scale Integration 100-5000 elements

VLSI Very Large Scale Integration 5000-50,000 elements

SLSI Super Large Scale Integration 50,000 -100,000 elements

ULSI Ultra Large Scale Integration > 100,000 elements

Obviously the larger the circuit element packed on to a given area, the smaller they
must be. At the densest level of packing, circuit elements can be only a few atoms in
size.

The Hardware Components Making up a Computer

The hardware components making up a computer include the arithmetic – logic unit,
the control unit and primary storage unit. These components also constitute the
processor unit or simply the processor. In most of today's computers, these
components are interconnected following the Von Neumann architecture developed
in the mid 1940s by John Von Neumann and other computer pioneers. The Von
Neumann architecture consists of a single control, primary storage and arithmetic -
logic unit, and is shown below:

CONTROL UNIT

PRIMARY STORAGE ARITHMEMIC

UNIT UNIT

The primary storage unit is used for four purposes, three of which relate to the data
being processed. Accordingly, the primary storage is divided into four parts, each of
which is assigned one function.

i. The Input Storage Area - This stores input data unit it is ready to be
processed.
ii. The working Storage Area - This, like a sheet of scratch paper, is used to hold
the data being processed and the intermediate results of such processing.
iii. The Output Storage Area - This holds the final results of the processing
operation unit they are released.
iv. The Program Storage Area - Unlike the above three, which serve data related
purpose, this area holds the processing instructions.
These separate areas used for the four general purposes are not fixed by built-in
physical boundaries; rather, they vary from one application to another.

The Arithmetic-Logic Unit carries out all the computation and comparison operations,
in fact, all processing is done in the this unit. This unit together with the control unit
makes up the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the heart of the computer.

The control section of the CPU maintains order and directs the operation of the
entire system, by selecting, interpreting, and seeing to the execution of program
instructions. Although the control section does not process data, it acts as a central
nervous system for the other data manipulating components of the computer.

The name of each component suggests the function performance by that

component, for instance, the primary storage unit is for storing data and programs.

CPU / Microprocessor

CPU: This is an acronym for Central Process Units and is defined as the
computational and control unit of a computer, in other words, the device that
interprets and executes instruction. CPU has the ability to fetch, record and execute
instructions and also to transfer information to and from other resources over the
computers main data transfer path, the bus. In summary, the CPU is a chip that
functions as a brain of a computer.

Microprocessor: This is the heart of all personal computers. The most popular lines
of Microprocessors today are:
 680x0 family from Motorola, which powers Apple Macintosh Computers.
 80x86 family from Intel, which is at the core of all IBM PC compatible and
PS/2 computer.

2. Computer System
Peripheral: This is a device connected to the computer and is under the control of
the CPU. Peripherals fall into three categories:

I. Input devices: These assist in capturing dat and feed it into the computer,
e.g., Keyboard, pointing devices (e.g. mouse, Joy sticks, Light-pen etc.)
II. Output devices: These assist in receiving data or information from the
computer, e.g., Printing devices (Printer, plotter) Display devices {CRT
(Cathode Ray Tube) screen, LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen, LED (Light
Emitted Diode) screen}
III. Input / Output devices: These do both i.e., input and output activities: Storage
media devices (floppy disk drive, hard disk drive), communication devices.

3. Factors Taken Into Account When Considering the

Worthiness of Providing Information.
Factors that should be taken into account when considering the worthiness of
providing information are called attributes of information quality, i.e. attributes which
give information meaning, usefulness, and value. In this respect, it is important to
think of information as having three dimensions namely, time, content, and form.

Information is frequently time sensitive. Along the time dimension, there are four
categories of attributes. Firstly, timeline - information should be provided when it is
needed. Secondly, current - information should be up to date when it is provided.
Thirdly, frequency - information should be provided as often as needed. Fourthly,
time period - information can be provided about past, present and future time
periods.

Content is regarded as the most important dimension of information. Along this

dimension, six attributes are recognized, namely, accuracy, relevance,
completeness, conciseness, scope, and performance. Information should be free of
errors, thus, accurate. Information should be related to the information needs of a
specific recipient for a specific situation (i.e. relevant). Information should be
complete, viz., all the information that is needed should be provided. Only
information that is needed should be provided, therefore, concise. The scope of
information should be defined. Information can have a broad or narrow scope, or
internal or external focus. Information can reveal performance by measuring
activities accomplished, progress made or resources accumulated.

The form dimension of information emphasises that information must be attractive

and easy to understand and use. This may be achieved by improving the user
interface and the packing of information products. Under the form dimension, five
attributes can be listed. Firstly, clarity - information should be provided in a form that
is easy to understand. Secondly, detailed - information can be provided in detail or
summary form. Thirdly, order - information can be arranged in a predetermined
sequence. Fourthly, presentation - information can be presented in narrative,
numeric, graphic or other forms, and lastly, media - information can be provide in the
form of printed paper (documents), video displays, or other media. Information with
the attribute considered above under the three dimensions, is said to be high quality,
i.e., information with meaning, usefulness and value.

4. Computer Classification
Computers are classified according to a number of ways including class (size),
generation, purpose, mode of operation and design (architecture). The numbers of
ways are also called dimensions.

In accordance with class, computers can be classified as Super Computer,

Mainframe, Super Minicomputer, Minicomputer, Workstation, Microcomputer and
Micro-controller. If other factors such as age are kept constant, descending this
categorization provides some indication of decrease in speed, size, cost, and
capacity.

 Super computer was first developed in 1970 and considered to be a highest

capacity computer. It costs several hundreds to thousands and millions of
dollars. It is used especially in mathematical research, world-wide weather
forecasting and analysis of weather phenomena, oil exploration, aircraft
design, evaluation of aging nuclear weapon system, among others. A super
 computer has hundreds or even thousands of processors in parallel
assembles, i.e. it is a multiprocessor. Examples of a super computer is Option
Red which occupies 12x12 m2 (1600 ft2) at Sandra National Laboratories in
Albuquerque, New Mexico.

 Mainframe was the only type available within 1960 and could serve a number
of users from a few hundred to thousand users. It is mainly used in banks,
airlines, insurance companies, mail order, among others.

 Minicomputer is also a multiprocessor.

 Workstation was introduced in 1980 and used in designing airplane fuselage,

prescription of drugs and movies special effects. It can be connected to larger
computer system on a network. The capability of low end workstation can
overlap those of high-end microcomputer.

 Microcomputer or Personal computer (PC) come in various sizes namely:

 Desktop microcomputer
 Tower microcomputer
 Notebook or laptop
 Handheld or palmtop
 Electronic Organizer
 Pen based computer.

Microcomputer can be used as a standalone or online (i.e. be connected to a

network). In a LAN one PC is assigned the role of a server (meaning that it
stores data and software for use by the other or perform service for them e.g.
printing services.

 Micro-controller (embedded, dedicated or hidden computer)

This is a tiny computer installed in smart appliances like micro-wave oven and
pocket calculator. It is special purpose i.e. it is dedicated to performing a
restricted number of tasks.

Conclusion
Regardless of type, size, speed, and capacity, all computer operate according to
similar principles. It is important to note that all statistics regarding the performance
and capacity of a particular type of computer is volatile. For instance the statistics of
a high-end microcomputer of today might be the same as the statistics of a low-end
minicomputers of a few years ago.

Presently, there are five generation into which computers can be classified.

 1st generation computers (such as ENIAC- Electronic Numeric Integrator And

Computer, UNICAV- UNIVersal Automatic Computer, MUSK, M-20),
introduced in the early 1940s (life span: 1944-1958), were based on vacuum
tubes. These computers were very voluminous and generated a lot of heat.

 2nd generation computers, introduced in late 1950s (1959-1963), were those

in which transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
  3rd generation computers, dating from early 1960s (1964-1970), were those in
which integrated circuits (IC), mainly SSI (Small Scale Integration), replaced
transistors.

 4th generation computers, appearing in the early 1970s (1971- to date), are
those (such as microcomputers) in which Large Scale Integration (LSI)
replaced SSI.

 5th generation computers, appearing in 1980s, combined VLSI (Very Large

Scale of Integration) with sophisticated approaches to computing such as
artificial intelligent and true distributed processing.

In reference to purpose, computers can be classified into two types.

 Special purpose computer, in which instruction are stored in firmware or wired

into or permanently stored in the machine, are used in specific tasks /
purposes. Examples include processor units installed in automobile in their
fuel system, ignition system, or braking system.

 General purpose computers, by using different stored programs, can, thus, be

used in countless applications. The versatility of this machine is limited by
human imagination.

Along mode of operation there are 3 types of computers, namely Digital, Analogue,
and Hybrid.

 Analogue computers, generally used in scientific pursuits, represent values by

a continuously varying signal that can have numerous values within a limited
range. Analogue computers are usually special purpose.

 Digital computers, in common use, represent value by discrete signals, i.e. by

means of bits (binary digits 0 and 1).

 Hybrid computes are composed of desirable feature of analogue and digital

machines. Practical application of hybrid computer is in hospital where the
analogue part handles continuously varying quantities such as pressure,
temperature, among others, while the digital part is used for control purposes.
Hybrid computers are usually special purpose.

In accordance with design, there are two types of computers.

 Von Neumann architecture computer, developed in the mid 1940 by Von

Neumann and other computer pioneers, is made up of a single control unit,
arithmetic –logic unit, and primary storage section.

 Multi processor architecture computers are equipped with hundreds or

thousands (even millions) of processor units in parallel assembles so as to
achieve a high performance. This architecture enables several instructions to
be processed simultaneously.

Despite the above categories of computer classification, experts do not agree on any
of them due to the fact that technology is changing so fast .It is worthwhile noting
that the size, cost and performance capabilities of the computer is likely to overlap,
as a result, classification is arbitrary.

5. Computer Users
There are two types of computer users namely End Users and Computer
Professionals. A comparison between the two is analog to a comparison between a
driver and a mechanic.

User or End user

This is a person who does not have much technical knowledge about a computer,
but has enough knowledge to use the computer in a bid to perform work-related to
personal tasks which enhance learning and productivity.

Computer Professional
This is a person who has a lot of experience and much technical knowledge to use
the computer. Examples include: Computer Programmers, System Analyst, Design
Developers, System Administrators, Database Administrators, among others.

6. Computer Literacy and Computer Competency

For one to become computer literate as well as computer competent one must be
Information Literate, that is to say, one should to be able to capture and analyze
information and use it in one’s computer.

Computer Literacy
This is having an understanding of what a computer is and how it can be used as a
resource.

Computer Competency
This is applying your skill to computer to meet the end user’s information need, and
consequently, improving the end user’s productivity.

The difference between the two is that Computer Literacy refers to having knowledge
and understanding while Computer Competency refers to skills which are acquired
through practice.

To become computer literate and computer competent one needs to know:

 computer terms or terminologies
 functions of parts of computer systems
 Use computer to increase productivity and meet future job requirement and be
flexible.
Where:
Productivity means to produce the information one needs and perform the task
required and Flexible means being knowledgeable about or be able to use different
kinds of computer types and different types of software.
Table of Prefixes used in Computer literacy

Prefix Quantity Symbol Prefix Quantity Syambol

Exa 1018 E Deci 10-1 d

Peta 1015 P Centi 10-2 c
Tera 1012 T Milli 10-3 m
Giga 109 G Micro 10-6 μ
Mega 106 M Nano 10-9 n
Kilo 103 k Pico 10-12 p
Hecto 102 h Femto 10-15 f
Deca 10 da Atto 10-18 a

Directory / file

File: This is a location with a name where data / information can be stored. It is
worthwhile noting that an extension, a string with a maximum length of three
characters, may be attached to a file name.

Directory: Analogously, a directory may be regarded as a named envelop, in which

files or other directories can be stored together. In other words, a directory is a
means of grouping files and directories together.

Hard Copy/Soft copy

Hard copy: The physical version of information printed out on paper, film or other
physical permanent media.

Soft copy: The electronic version of information on a floppy disk, hard disk, optical
disc, monitor among others.

7. Computer based Information System (CBIS)

CBIS is made up of six parts namely:
i. Hardware (H/W)
ii. Software (S/W)
iii. Data and Information
iv. Communication
v. People
vi. Procedures.

Note that all the six components are equally important, however, the most important
one among them is the people because the H/W and S/W of the CBIS is operated by
the people, information generated by the CBIS is used by the people and the
procedures are followed by the people.

In this section only three components (namely, H/W, S/W, and procedures) are
defined, the others are defined in other sections. The definition of Firmware (F/W) is
introduced for comparison purposes.
Hardware: This is the mechanical, magnetic, electrical, electronic or optical device,
i.e. physical equipment,

Software: This is a set of programs, documents, procedures and routines

associated with operation of computer system i.e. computer programs.

Firmware: This falls between software and hardware and is defined as software
routines stored in ROM (Read Only Memory). Start up routines and low level input /
output instructions are example of software stored as firmware.

Procedures: are description how task are performed and steps for achieving results.
Example include: documentation manuals (reference manuals and user guides)
which contain instructions, rules, and guideline to follow when using hardware and
software.

8. Encoding Schemes Used In Computers

Encoding schemes are used in computers for assigning binary codes to symbols or
characters. Data is transmitted, stored, processed in form of these binary codes,
which including: Binary Coded Decimal (BCD), American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII), Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
(EBCDIC), Unicode and Extended Unicode.

With the BCD scheme, each symbol (digit) in the decimal system is represented by
its binary equivalent rather than converting the entire decimal value into a pure
binary form Since 8 and 9 require 4 bits, each decimal digit is represented in BCD by
4 bits. For example, 15 in BCD would be 00010101 instead of 1111, its true binary
equivalent.

There are two version of ASCII, namely ASCII, a 7 bit code comprising of 3 zone bits
and 4 numeric bits, and ASCII-8, an eight bit code consisting of 4 zone bits and 4
numeric bits. With ASCII, 128 (27) different symbols or characters can be assigned,
while with ASCII-8, 256 (28) symbols can be assigned. ASCII is widely used in data
communications work and is the code used to represent data internally in personal
computers, where as ASCII-8 is frequently used in the large machines.

EBCDIC, an 8-bit code, is mainly used in IBM mainframe models and in similar
machines produced by other manufacturers. Like the ASCII- 8, and EBCDIC. BCD is
less commonly used as compared to the mentioned three.

Unicode is a 16 bit (2 byte) binary code, therefore with this, 2 16 =65536 symbols can
be assigned. Currently, the Unicode is gradually replacing ASCII code and is a multi
platform, multi language and multi program code. The Unicode Standard has been
adopted by such industry leaders as Apple, HP, IBM, JustSystems, Microsoft,
Oracle, SAP, Sun, Sybase, Unisys, among others. Unicode is required by modern
standards such as XML, Java, ECMAScript (JavaScript), LDAP, CORBA 3.0, WML,
etc., and is the official way to implement ISO/IEC 10646. It is supported in many
operating systems, and all modern browsers.

Extended Unicode came into existence to address the problem of lack of codes to
assign the global symbols. Currently the world symbols stand at 1,112,064
characters. JDK version 1.5 and 1.6, the latest Java releases, supports extended
Unicode.

9. Storage Devices
Units of Storage measurement

The unit for measuring the capacity of a storage media include: Binary digit (Bit),
Byte, Kilobyte, Megabyte, Gigabyte, Terabyte, Petabyte, and Exabyte.

Binary digit: This refers to binary alphabet which consists of two elements, namely
0 and 1.
Bit is a short form for binary digit, however, in processing and storage, it is the
smallest unit a computer can handle and is represented physically by elements such
as a single pulse sent in a circuit, a spot on a magnetic or optical media capable of
storing a one or zero. Singly as it is, a bit conveys little meaningful information to the
human being.

Byte (B): This is a string of eight bits used to represent characters such as letters,
numbers, punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, among others.

Kilobyte (KB): This refers to 210 = 1024 bytes. The prefix kilo has a different
meaning in the decimal numbering system in which it represents a thousand (1000).
To differentiate between the two, a lower case "k" is used for the decimal system
meaning and an upper case "K" for the computer meaning.

Megabyte (MB): This refers to 220 = 1,045,576 bytes which is close to one million
(the analogue in the common numbering system, the decimal system)

Gigabyte (GB): This refers to 230 = 1,073, 741,824 bytes which is close to one
billion.

Terabyte (TB): This refers to 240 = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes which is close to one
trillion.

Petabyte (PB): This refers to 250 = 1,125, 899,906,842,624 bytes which is close to
one quadrillion.

Exabyte (EB): This refers to 260 = 1,152, 921,504,606,846,976 bytes which is close
to one quintillion.

Secondary and Primary storage

Secondary (permanent) storage: A medium that retains the data recorded on it

for a long period of time without power, implying that, the storage medium is power
independent (non-volatile)

Primary (temporary) storage: A region of memory or on a storage device that is

temporarily allowed for storing intermediate data in a computational storing or
transfer operation. Temporary storage media is usually volatile (i.e. power
dependent) and data stored in temporary stores can be accessed very fast.

Disk / Disc / Optical disc / Floppy disk / Hard disk / CD-ROM / WORM

Disk: A round, flat piece of flexible plastic (floppy disk) or inflexible metal (hard disk)
coated with a magnetic material that can be electrically influenced to hold information
recorded in digital binary form. The disk is in most computers, the primary means of
storing data on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. Because the magnetic
coating of the disk must be protected from damage and contamination, a floppy (5
1/4'') Disk or micro floppy (31/2'') disk is enclosed in a protective plastic jacket. A
hard disk, which is very finely machined, is enclosed in a rigid case and can be
exposed only in a dust free environment.

Removable cartridge is another type of disk used with some hard disk drive and unit
such as the Bernoulli box.

Disc: A round, flat piece of non-magnetic shinny metal encased in a plastic coating,
designed to be read from and written to by optical (laser) technology.

Floppy disk (FD): A round, flat piece of Mylar coated with ferric oxide, rust like
substance containing tiny particles capable of holding a magnetic field and encased
in protective plastic cover, the disk jacket. Data is stored on a floppy disk by the disk
drive's read/write heads which alters the magnetic orientation of the particles
(orientation in one direction represent binary one while orientation in the opposite
direction binary zero "0"). There are two types of floppy disks namely 5 ¼ inches
floppy disk and 3 ½ inches microfloppy disk.

Hard disk (HD): One (or more) in flexible platter(s) coated with material that allows
the magnetic recording of computer data. A physical HD rotates at 3600 rpm and the
read/write heads ride over the surface of the disk on a cushion of air 10 to 25 micro
inches thick. A hard disk is sealed to prevent contaminates from interfering with the
close head-to-disk tolerance. HD provides faster access to data than FD AND are
capable of storing much more information. Because platters are rigid, they can be
stack so that one hard disk drive can access more than one platter.

WORM: This is an acronym for Write One Read Many and is a type of optical disc
that can be read and re-read but cannot be altered after it has been recorded. On it
is suitable for storing archives and other large amount of unchanging information, on
WORM because it cannot be erased and re-recorded on.

CD-ROM: CD-ROM, an acronym for compact Disc Read Only Memory is a form of
storage characterised by high capacity (roughly 600 MB) and uses laser optics rather
than magnetic means for reading data. CD-ROM device is similar to a WORM device
in that they are both optical.

Memory/ROM/RAM/SIMM

Memory: Circuitry that allows information to be stored and retrieved. In common

usage it refers to RAM.
RAM: An acronym for Random Access Memory. RAM is a semi-conductor-based
memory that can be read and written by the microprocessor or other hardware
devices.

ROM: An acronym for Read Only Memory and refers to a semi-conductor-based

memory that contains instructions or data that can be read but not modified.

SIMM: An abbreviation for Single Inline Memory Module is defined as a small circuit
board designed to accommodate surface-mount memory chips. SIMMs use less
board space and are more compact than mouse conventional memory mounting
hardware.

Other Types of Memories

EPROM Enable Programmable Read Only Memory

DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory

EDO-DRAM Extended Data Out DRAM

BEDO-DRAM Burst Mode EDO DRAM

SDRAM Synchronous DRAM

SGRAM Sychronnous Graphical RAM

RAMBUS Random Access Memory Bus

MDRAM Mosy DRAM

VRAM Video RAM

WRAM Window Ram

FLUSH-EPROM: in the latest generation of super PC, the BIOS is stored on flush
EPROM
CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semi conductor

CAM Content Addressable Memory

10. GUI and Pointing Devices

Cursor / prompt / Icon

Cursor: The cursor is a symbol on the screen which moves in response to a

keystrokes or movement of a pointing device such as a mouse, stylus or pen on a
digitizing / graphic table, to mention but a few. The cursor takes on several shapes
depending on the type of the computer environment, or type of input device, or mode
of operation (e.g. drawing or writing mode). In the Dos environment, the cursor takes
on shape of a blinking underline. In windows environment or on an Apple Macintosh
computer, the cursor is a blinking vertical bar called an insertion point where text or
graphics can be inserted. In reference to a pointing device, a cursor is sometime
called a pointer.

Prompt: Displayed text indicating that a computer program is waiting for input from
the user.

Icon: This is a small graphics image displayed on the screen to represent an object
that presents visual mnemonics, e.g. a rubber can represent a command for deleting
unwanted items. Icons are vital factor in making Graphical User interface user
friendly by allowing the user to control certain computer actions without having to
remember commands or type them on the keyboard.

User friendly

This is an adjective describing the ease to learn and ease to use.

Pointing Devices
A Pointing Device (PD) is defined as a device used in Graphic User Interface (GUI)
for pointing at items or icons in the interface. PDs are important in GUI because they
make it more user-friendly.

Example of pointing devices include: Mouse, Track-ball, Light-pen, Touch Pad, and
Joy-stick.

Mouse: This is a common printing device. The basic features include:

 a casing with a flat bottom, designed to be gripped by one hand
 one or more buttons on the top
 a multi directional detection device( usally aball at the bottom)
 a cable connecting the mouse to the computer

Light-pen: This is a pointing device in form of a wand attached to the computer by

cable. The user holds the wand on to the screen and selects items or chooses
commands either by pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the
light-pen against the surface of the screen.

Track-ball: This is a pointing device that can roughly be described as a mouse on its
back.

Joy-stick: This is a pointing device with a vertical level (stem) which controls the
movement of a cursor (object) on the screen. In other words, the Joy-stick cursor
reciprocates the movement of the level. The Joy-stick is popularly used for playing
computer games.