A

LABORATORY MANUAL
On

“BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING”

SEMESTER – (I&II)

Subject Code: ESC-101-ETC

Academic Year 2024-25

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ……………………………………………….class First year

Engineering Roll No……. has successfully completed all the practicals in the subject
“Basic Electronics Engineering” satisfactory in the department of Applied Sciences and
Humanities as prescribed by Savitribhai Phule Pune university, Pune in the academic year
2024-25.

Prof. Dr. M. V. Bhatkar

Subject Incharge Head of the Department Principal
 SEMESTER: I & II
CLASS: FE PATTEREN: 2024

Abstract:
This course covers various electronics components fundamental concept, applications and sensors
and transducers such as temperature, pressure, weight, displacement and finally concept of electronic
communication.

.
After successful Bloom’s
Course Completion of the course, Experiments Target
Taxonomy
outcomes Mapped Set
learner will be able to- Level
To Know about the
working of P-N Understanding
1,2,3,4,10
Junction diode and its
CO1 60%
application as rectifier
& switch, basics of
LED & Photodiode.

To Understand the
study
working of BJT &
CO2 60%
MOSFET, their
5,6,7,9,10
characteristics &
compare.
To Learn logic gates
& realization of the
CO3 learn 7,9,10 60%
digital circuits.

To Understand the
functioning of Opamp 6,9,10
CO4 Understand 60%
and electronic
instruments
To Select sensors 8,9,10
based on their working
principle for specific Select
CO5 60%
applications and its
implementation with
Communication system
 SEMESTER: I & II
CLASS: FE PATTEREN: 2024
SUBJECT: BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (CODE: ESC-101-ETC)
INDEX
PAG DAT A(02 Tota SIG
S.N. TITLE C(04) P(04)
E E ) l N

Study of Active and Passive

1
Components
Measurements using various
2
measuring equipment’s
V-I characteristics of P-N Junction
3 Diode (Study the datasheet of
typical PN junction diode)
Rectifier circuits: Implement DC
4 Regulated Power Supply using
bridge rectifier & diodes.
Build and test Common Emitter
5 (CE) BJT Amplifier Circuit. a)
Calculate the Gain of CE Amplifier
Linear applications of Op-amp:
Build inverting and non-inverting
6
amplifier using op-amp(Study the
data sheet of typical Op-Amp741)
Test and verify the truth tables of:
a) Basic and Universal Gates
7 (Study the datasheet of respective
ICs)
b) Half & Full Adder
Study of transducers/sensor : (Any
8
3)
Build and test any circuit using
9 BJT/MOSFET/Op-Amp/Logic
Gates using any one sensor.
Case Study of any one electronics
10 appliances with block diagram,
specification etc.
R1 – Involving, Understand &
Rubric Performance
R2 – Presentation & Organization Average Practical Marks
s
R3 – Timely Submission
Experiment No: 01 Date:

1.1 Aim: Electronic Components - Study of Active and Passive Components.

a) Resistors (Fixed & Variable), Calculation of resistor value using color code.

b) Capacitors (Fixed & Variable)

c) Inductors, Calculation of inductor value using color code.

d) Devices such Diode, BJT, MOSFETs, various IC packages

e) Switches & Relays

1.2 Objectives:
1. To understand different types of resistors and to find its values by using color code
2. To understand different types of Inductors and to find its values by using color code.
3. To understand different types of Capacitors.
4. To understand different types of Devices such as Diode, BJT, MOSFETS.
5. To understand different types of IC Packages.
6. To study Switches & Relays.
1.3 Hardware used:
Components: Resistors (Carbon film, Metal Film, Wire wound, Variable),Capacitors
(Electrolytic, Mica, Ceramic, Variable), Inductors,Diode, Transistors, MOSFET, IC’s, Switches
and Relays etc.
1.4 Software used: NA

1.5. Theory:
The Different Types of Resistors
Resistors (R) are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the
electronic components, to the point where they are almost taken for
A Typical Resistor
granted. There are many different Types of Resistors available to
the electronics constructor, from very small surface mount chip
resistors up to large wire wound power resistors. The principal job of a resistor within an
electrical or electronic circuit is to "resist" (hence the name resistor) or to impede the flow of
electrons through them by using the type of material that they are composed from. Resistors can
also act as voltage droppers or voltage dividers within a circuit.
Standard Resistor Symbols
The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be a "zig-zag" type
line or a rectangular box.
All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups;
Carbon Composition Resistor – made up of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values.
Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values.
Wire-wound Resistor – Used metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings.
Semiconductor Resistor - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology.
Resistor Colour Code: An international and universally accepted resistor colour coding scheme
was developed many years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors value no
matter what its size or condition.
It is sometimes easier to remember the resistor color code by
B B ROY Great Britain has Very Good Wife
Bad Booze Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well
Bad Boys Ring Our Young Girls But Vicky Goes Without
The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart.

The Resistor Colour Code Table. 4-band code: Thefirst two bands represent the most
Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance significant digits of the resistance value. example, if a resistor
Black 0 1 has brown and red as the first two bands, the most significant

Brown 1 10 ± 1% digits will be 1 and 2 (12).

Red 2 100 ± 2% The third band indicates the multiplier For example, if this
band is red (2), the value would be: 12 x 100 = 1200Ω (1.2kΩ).
Orange 3 1,000
Note: If the multiplier band is gold or silver, the decimal point
Yellow 4 10,000
is moved to the left by one or two
Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%
Grey 8
White 9
Gold 0.1 ± 5%
Silver 0.01 ± 10% The tolerance band is next, usually spaced away from the
others, or it's a little bit wider. A color is assigned to each
tolerance: gold is 5%, silver is 10%. So, for a 560 ohm, 5%
None ± 20%
resistor the color stripes will be green, blue, brown and gold.
Green and blue are the first significant digits (56); brown is the
multiplier (101 = 10) and gold is the tolerance (5%). 56 x 10 =

Surface Mount Resistors or SMD Resistors are very small rectangular

shaped metal oxide film resistor. They have a ceramic substrate body onto
which is deposited a thick layer of metal oxide resistance. The resistive
value of the resistor is controlled by increasing the desired thickness,
length or type of deposited film being used and highly accurate low
tolerance resistors, down to 0.1% can be produced
Capacitors:
The Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a
simple passive device, and one which stores its energy in the form of an electrostatic charge
producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates. In its basic form, a capacitor
consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates which are not connected or touch each
other, but are electrically separated either by air or by some form of insulating material such as
paper, mica, ceramic or plastic and which is called the capacitors Dielectric.
The Capacitance of a Capacitor:The unit of capacitance is the Farad (abbreviated to F), the
Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its own, so sub-multiples of the Farad is
generally used such as micro-farads, nano-farads and pico-farads.
Types of capacitor
Dielectric Capacitor:
Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type were a continuous variation of capacitance is
required for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios.
As well as the continuously variable types, preset type variable capacitors are also available called
Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set" to a particular
capacitance value with the aid of a small screwdriver and are available in very small capacitances
of 500pF or less and are non-polarized.
Film Capacitor:
These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, metallized paper,
Teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from as small as 5pF to as
large as 100uF, depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage rating. Film
Capacitors which use polystyrene, polycarbonate or Teflon as their dielectrics are sometimes
called "Plastic capacitors".
The construction of plastic film capacitors is similar to that for paper film capacitors but use a
plastic film instead of paper.
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called are
made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver
and are then stacked together to make a capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance
values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes,
a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second
electrode (usually the cathode).
Capacitor Colour Codes
Generally, the actual values of Capacitance, Voltage or Tolerance are marked onto the body of the
capacitors in the form of alphanumeric characters.
For example, a capacitor can be labeled as, n47 = 0.47nF, 4n7 = 4.7nF or 47n = 47nF and so on.
Also, sometimes capacitors are marked with the capital letter K to signify a value of one thousand
pico-Farads, so for example, a capacitor with the markings of 100K would be 100 x 1000pF or
100nF.
The Inductor
Inductor stores Magnetic Energy. Function of Inductor to block the AC frequency & allows DC
signal to pass through it. Important property of Inductor is it comes in the circuit only when there
is change in Current hence always connected in Series.

PN Junction Diode:
A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor
creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction.

To the diode without any external voltage being applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the
junction being in a state of equilibrium.

However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type
materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to
overcome the potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross
the depletion region from one side to the other. The behavior of the PN junction with regards to
the potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better
known as the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode
does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential
current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described its operation by simply
using an equation such as Ohm’s law.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it
can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the
width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from
the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of
increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current
flow through the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and
narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in
the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking
place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V
(current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the
polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to
firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above,
“Reverse Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An
external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias”
direction.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:

1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode

2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and positive,
(+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s
width.
3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and negative, (-
ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes
width.
Model Number Diode Type Peak Inverse Voltage Current
1N4001 Rectifier 50 V 1A
1N4002 Rectifier 100 V 1A
1N4003 Rectifier 200 V 1A
1N4004 Rectifier 400 V 1A
1N4005 Rectifier 600 V 1A
1N4006 Rectifier 800 V 1A
1N4007 Rectifier 1,000 V 1A
Bipolar Transistor

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is a semiconductor device which can be used for switching or
amplification

In the diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor
material to form a simple pn-junction and we also learnt about their properties and characteristics.

If we now join together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-
junctions connected together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of these
two diodes produces a three layer, two junctions, and three terminal devices forming the basis of a
Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that
can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistor’s ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions:
“switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification” (analogue electronics). Then bipolar
transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β*Ib

 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0

A Typical Bipolar Transistor

The word Transistor is a combination of the two words Transfer Varistor which describes their
mode of operation way back in their early days of electronics development. There are two basic
types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two.
These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter(E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector (
C ) respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them from the Emitter to the Collector terminals in proportion to the amount of biasing
voltage applied to their base terminal, thus acting like a current-controlled switch. As a small
current flowing into the base terminal controls a much larger collector current forming the basis
of transistor action.

The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only
difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional current
flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always points
from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the
same as for the standard diode symbol.

Transistors:
Transistors are identified by a Army-Navy (JAN) designation printed directly on the case of the
transistor. If in doubt about a transistor's markings, always replace a transistorwith one having
identical markings, or consult an equipment or transistor manual to ensure that an identical
replacement or substitute is used.
Pro-Electron Numbering or Coding System

First Letter Second Letter Subsequent Characters

Specifies Specifies type of device
semiconductor
material

A Germanium Diode - low power or The characters following the

A first two letters form the
signal
B Silicon serial number of the device.
B Diode - variable Those intended for domestic
 Gallium capacitance use have three numbers, but
C those intended for
Arsenide Transistor - audio commercial or industrial use
C
Compound frequency, low power have letter followed by two
R
materials numbers, i.e. A10 - Z99.
Transistor - audio
D
frequency, power
E Tunnel diode
Transistor - high
F
frequency, low power
Miscellaneous
G
devices
Diode - sensitive to
H
magnetism
Transistor - high
L
frequency, power
N Photocoupler
P Light detector
Q Light emitter
Switching device,
low power, e.g.
R
thyristor, diac,
unijunction
Transistor - switching
S
low power
Switching device,
T low power, e.g.
thyristor, triac
Transistor -
U
switching, power
Surface acoustic
W
wave device
X Diode multiplier
Y Diode rectifying
Diode-voltage
Z
reference

This a BC107 is a low power audio transistor and a BBY10 is variable capacitance diode for
industrial or commercial use.

TRANSISTOR LEADIDENTIFICATION plays an important part intransistor maintenance

because before a transistorcan be tested or replaced, its leads must beidentified. Since there is NO
standard method ofidentifying transistor leads, check some typicallead identification schemes or a
transistor manualbefore attempting to replace a transistor. Identification of leads for some
common casestyles is shown in Fig. below
Testing a transistor
Transistors are basically made up of twocan use this analogy to determine whether a transistorits
Resistance between the three different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector.

Testing with a multimeters

Use a multimeters or a simple testerand LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction.Set a
digital multimeters to diode test and an analoguemultimeters to a low resistance range.

The MOSFET

MOSFET’s operate the same as JFET’s but have a gate terminal that is electrically isolated from
the conductive channel.
As well as the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET), there is another type of Field
EffectTransistor available whose Gate input is electrically insulated from the main current
carrying channel and is therefore called an Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor.

The most common type of insulated gate FET which is used in many different types of electronic
circuits is called the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET for
short.

The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor that differs from a JFET in
that it has a “Metal Oxide” Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main
semiconductor n-channel or p-channel by a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon
dioxide, commonly known as glass.

This ultra thin insulated metal gate electrode can be thought of as one plate of a capacitor. The
isolation of the controlling Gate makes the input resistance of the MOSFET extremely high way
up in the Mega-ohms ( MΩ ) region thereby making it almost infinite.

As the Gate terminal is electrically isolated from the main current carrying channel between the
drain and source, “NO current flows into the gate” and just like the JFET, the MOSFET also acts
like a voltage controlled resistor where the current flowing through the main channel between the
Drain and Source is proportional to the input voltage. Also like the JFET, the MOSFETs very
high input resistance can easily accumulate large amounts of static charge resulting in the
MOSFET becoming easily damaged unless carefully handled or protected.

Like the previous JFET tutorial, MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a Gate, Drain and
Source and both P-channel (PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS) MOSFETs are available. The main
difference this time is that MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:
  Depletion Type – the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the
device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Closed”
switch.
 Enhancement Type – the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the
device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Open”
switch.

The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs are shown below.

The four MOSFET symbols above show an additional terminal called the Substrate and is not
normally used as either an input or an output connection but instead it is used for grounding the
substrate. It connects to the main semi conductive channel through a diode junction to the body or
metal tab of the MOSFET.

Usually in discrete type MOSFETs, this substrate lead is connected internally to the source
terminal. When this is the case, as in enhancement types it is omitted from the symbol for
clarification.
The line in the MOSFET symbol between the drain (D) and source (S) connections represents the
transistors semiconductive channel. If this channel line is a solid unbroken line then it represents a
“Depletion” (normally-ON) type MOSFET as drain current can flow with zero gate biasing
potential.

If the channel line is shown as a dotted or broken line, then it represents an “Enhancement”
(normally-OFF) type MOSFET as zero drain current flows with zero gate potential. The direction
of the arrow pointing to this channel line indicates whether the conductive channel is a P-type or
an N-type semiconductor device.

Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol

The construction of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET is very different to that of the Junction
FET. Both the Depletion and Enhancement type MOSFETs use an electrical field produced by a
gate voltage to alter the flow of charge carriers, electrons for n-channel or holes for P-channel,
through the semiconductive drain-source channel. The gate electrode is placed on top of a very
thin insulating layer and there are a pair of small n-type regions just under the drain and source
electrodes.

We saw in the previous tutorial, that the gate of a junction field effect transistor, JFET must be
biased in such a way as to reverse-bias the pn-junction. With a insulated gate MOSFET device no
such limitations apply so it is possible to bias the gate of a MOSFET in either polarity, positive
(+ve) or negative (-ve).

This makes the MOSFET device especially valuable as electronic switches or to make logic gates
because with no bias they are normally non-conducting and this high gate input resistance means
that very little or no control current is needed as MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices. Both
the p-channel and the n-channel MOSFETs are available in two basic forms, the Enhancement
type and the Depletion type.

Depletion-mode MOSFET

The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the enhancement mode types is
normally switched “ON” (conducting) without the application of a gate bias voltage. That is the
channel conducts when VGS = 0 making it a “normally-closed” device. The circuit symbol shown
above for a depletion MOS transistor uses a solid channel line to signify a normally closed
conductive channel.

For the n-channel depletion MOS transistor, a negative gate-source voltage, -VGS will deplete
(hence its name) the conductive channel of its free electrons switching the transistor “OFF”.
Likewise for a p-channel depletion MOS transistor a positive gate-source voltage, +VGS will
deplete the channel of its free holes turning it “OFF”.

In other words, for an n-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +VGS means more electrons and more
current. While a -VGS means less electrons and less current. The opposite is also true for the p-
channel types. Then the depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-closed” switch.

Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols

The depletion-mode MOSFET is constructed in a similar way to their JFET transistor
counterparts were the drain-source channel is inherently conductive with the electrons and holes
already present within the n-type or p-type channel. This doping of the channel produces a
conducting path of low resistance between the Drain and Source with zero Gate bias.

Enhancement-mode MOSFET

The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET or eMOSFET, is the reverse of the depletion-
mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly doped or even undoped making it non-
conductive. This results in the device being normally “OFF” (non-conducting) when the gate bias
voltage, VGS is equal to zero. The circuit symbol shown above for an enhancement MOS transistor
uses a broken channel line to signify a normally open non-conducting channel.

For the n-channel enhancement MOS transistor a drain current will only flow when a gate voltage
( VGS ) is applied to the gate terminal greater than the threshold voltage ( VTH ) level in which
conductance takes place making it a transconductance device.

The application of a positive (+ve) gate voltage to a n-type eMOSFET attracts more electrons
towards the oxide layer around the gate thereby increasing or enhancing (hence its name) the
thickness of the channel allowing more current to flow. This is why this kind of transistor is
called an enhancement mode device as the application of a gate voltage enhances the channel.

Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to decrease further causing
an increase in the drain current, ID through the channel. In other words, for an n-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “ON”, while a zero or -VGS turns the
transistor “OFF”. Thus the enhancement-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “normally-open”
switch.

The reverse is true for the p-channel enhancement MOS transistor. When VGS = 0 the device is
“OFF” and the channel is open. The application of a negative (-ve) gate voltage to the p-type
eMOSFET enhances the channels conductivity turning it “ON”. Then for an p-channel
enhancement mode MOSFET: +VGS turns the transistor “OFF”, while -VGS turns the transistor
“ON”.

Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and Circuit Symbols

Enhancement-mode MOSFETs make excellent electronics switches due to their low “ON”
resistance and extremely high “OFF” resistance as well as their infinitely high input resistance
due to their isolated gate. Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are used in integrated circuits to
produce CMOS type Logic Gates and power switching circuits in the form of as PMOS (P-
channel) and NMOS (N-channel) gates. CMOS actually stands for Complementary MOS meaning
that the logic device has both PMOS and NMOS within its design.

The MOSFET Amplifier

Just like the previous Junction Field Effect transistor, MOSFETs can be used to make single stage
class “A” amplifier circuits with the enhancement mode n-channel MOSFET common source
amplifier being the most popular circuit. Depletion mode MOSFET amplifiers are very similar to
the JFET amplifiers, except that the MOSFET has a much higher input impedance.
This high input impedance is controlled by the gate biasing resistive network formed by R1 and
R2. Also, the output signal for the enhancement mode common source MOSFET amplifier is
inverted because when VG is low the transistor is switched “OFF” and VD (Vout) is high. When
VG is high the transistor is switched “ON” and VD (Vout) is low as shown.

Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET Amplifier

IC Packages

The package is what encapsulates the integrated circuit die and splays it out into a device we can
more easily connect to. Each outer connection on the die is connected via a tiny piece of gold wire
to a pad or pin on the package. Pins are the silver, extruding terminals on an IC, which go on to
connect to other parts of a circuit. These are of utmost importance to us, because they're what will
go on to connect to the rest of the components and wires in a circuit.

There are many different types of packages, each of which has unique dimensions, mounting-
types, and/or pin-counts.
 Polarity Marking and Pin Numbering

All ICs are polarized, and every pin is unique in terms of both location and function. This means
the package has to have some way to convey which pin is which. Most ICs will use either a notch
or a dot to indicate which pin is the first pin. (Sometimes both, sometimes one or the other.)

Once you know where the first pin is, the remaining pin numbers increase sequentially as you
move counter-clockwise around the chip.

Mounting Style
One of the main distinguishing package type characteristics is the way they mount to a circuit
board. All packages fall into one of two mounting types: through-hole (PTH) or surface-mount
(SMD or SMT). Through-hole packages are generally bigger, and much easier to work with.
They're designed to be stuck through one side of a board and soldered to the other side.

Surface-mount packages range in size from small to minuscule. They are all designed to sit on
one side of a circuit board and be soldered to the surface. The pins of a SMD package either
extrude out the side, perpendicular to the chip, or are sometimes arranged in a matrix on the
bottom of the chip. ICs in this form factor are not very "hand-assembly-friendly." They usually
require special tools to aid in the process.

DIP (Dual in-line packages)

DIP, short for dual in-line package, is the most common through-hole IC package you'll
encounter. These little chips have two parallel rows of pins extending perpendicularly out of a
rectangular, black, plastic housing.

The 28-pin ATmega328 is one of the more popular DIP-packaged microcontrollers (thanks, Arduino!).

Each of the pins on a DIP IC are spaced by 0.1" (2.54mm), which is a standard spacing and
perfect for fitting into breadboards and other prototyping boards. The overall dimensions of a DIP
package depend on its pin count, which may be anywhere from four to 64.

The area between each row of pins is perfectly spaced to allow DIP ICs to straddle the center area
of a breadboard. This provides each of the pins its own row in the board, and it makes sure they
don't short to each other.
Aside from being used in breadboards, DIP ICs can also be soldered into PCBs. They're inserted
into one side of the board and soldered into place on the other side. Sometimes, instead of
soldering directly to the IC, it's a good idea to socket the chip. Using sockets allows for a DIP IC
to be removed and swapped out, if it happens to "let its blue smoke out."

A regular DIP socket (top) and a ZIF socket with and without an IC.
Surface-Mount (SMD/SMT) Packages

There is a huge variety of surface-mount package types these days. In order to work with surface-
mount packaged ICs, you usually need a custom printed circuit board (PCB) made for them,
which has a matching pattern of copper on which they're soldered.

Here are a few of the more common SMD package types out there, ranging in hand-solderability
from "doable" to "doable, but only with special tools" to "doable only with very special, usually
automated tools".
Small-Outline (SOP)

Small-outline IC (SOIC) packages are the surface-mount cousin of the DIP. It's what you'd get if
you bent all the pins on a DIP outward, and shrunk it down to size. With a steady hand, and a
close eye, these packages are among the easiest SMD parts to hand solder. On SOIC packages,
each pin is usually spaced by about 0.05" (1.27mm) from the next.

The SSOP (shrink small-outline package) is an even smaller version of SOIC packages. Other,
similar IC packages include TSOP (thin small-outline package) and TSSOP (thin-shrink small-
outline package).

A 16-Channel Multiplexer (CD74HC4067) in a 24-pin SSOP package. Mounted on a board in the middle
(quarter added for size-comparison).

A lot of the more simple, single-task-oriented ICs like the MAX232 or multiplexers come in
SOIC or SSOP forms.

Quad Flat Packages

Splaying IC pins out in all four directions gets you something that might look like a quad flat
package (QFP). QFP ICs might have anywhere from eight pins per side (32 total) to upwards of
seventy (300+ total). The pins on a QFP IC are usually spaced by anywhere from 0.4mm to 1mm.
Smaller variants of the standard QFP package include thin (TQFP), very thin (VQFP), and low-
profile (LQFP) packages.
 The ATmega32U4 in a 44-pin (11 on each side) TQFP package.

If you sanded the legs off a QFP IC, you get something that might look like a quad-flat no-leads
(QFN) package. The connections on QFN packages are tiny, exposed pads on the bottom corner
edges of the IC. Sometimes they wrap around, and are exposed on both the side and bottom, other
packages only expose the pad on the bottom of the chip.

The multitalented MPU-6050 IMU sensor comes in a relatively tiny QFN package, with 24 total pins
hiding on the bottom edge of the IC.

Thin (TQFN), very thin (VQFN), and micro-lead (MLF) packages are smaller variations of the
standard QFN package. There are even dual no-lead (DFN) and thin-dual no-lead (TDFN)
packages, which have pins on just two of the sides.

Many microprocessors, sensors, and other modern ICs come in QFP or QFN packages. The
popular ATmega328 microcontroller is offered in both a TQFP package and a QFN-type (MLF)
form, while a tiny accelerometer/gyroscope like the MPU-6050 comes in a miniscule QFN form.

Ball Grid Arrays

Finally, for really advanced ICs, there are ball grid array (BGA) packages. These are amazingly
intricate little packages where little balls of solder are arranged in a 2-D grid on the bottom of the
IC. Sometimes the solder balls are attached directly to the die!
BGA packages are usually reserved for advanced microprocessors, like those on the pcDuino or
Raspberry Pi.

If you can hand solder a BGA-packaged IC, consider yourself a master solderer. Usually, to put
these packages onto a PCB requires an automated procedure involving pick-and-place machines
and reflow ovens.

Common ICs

Integrated circuits are prevalent in so many forms across electronics, it's hard to cover everything.
Here are a few of the more common ICs you might encounter in educational electronics.

Logic Gates, Timers, Shift Registers, Etc.

Logic gates, the building blocks of much more ICs themselves, can be packaged into their own
integrated circuit. Some logic gate ICs might contain a handful of gates in one package, like this
quad-input AND gate:

Logic gates can be connected inside an IC to create timers, counters, latches, shift registers, and
other basic logic circuitry. Most of these simple circuits can be found in DIP packages, as well as
SOIC and SSOP.
 Microcontrollers, Microprocessors, FPGAs, Etc.

Microcontrollers, microprocessors, and FPGAs, all packing thousands, millions, even billions of
transistors into a tiny chip, are all integrated circuits. These components exist in a wide range in
functionality, complexity, and size; from an 8-bit microcontroller like the ATmega328 in an
Arduino, to a complex 64-bit, multi-core microprocessor organizing activity in your computer.

These components are usually the largest IC in a circuit. Simple microcontrollers can be found in
packages ranging from DIP to QFN/QFP, with pin counts lying somewhere between eight and a
hundred. As these components grow in complexity, the package gets equally complex. FPGAs
and complex microprocessors can have upwards of a thousand pins and are only available in
advanced packages like QFN, LGA, or BGA.

Sensors

Modern digital sensors, like temperature sensors, accelerometers, and gyroscopes all come packed
into an integrated circuit.

These ICs are usually smaller than the microcontrollers, or other ICs on a circuit board, with pin
counts in the three to twenty range. DIP sensor ICs are becoming a rarity, as modern components
are usually found in QFP, QFN, even BGA packages.

Switch:
Electronics British
Expansion
specification mains
of Description Symbol
and wiring
abbreviation
abbreviation name
A simple on-off switch: The two
Single pole, single terminals are either connected together
SPST One-way
throw or disconnected from each other. An
example is a light switch.
Single pole, A simple changeover switch: C (COM,
SPDT Two-way
double throw Common) is connected to L1 or to L2.
Single pole
Similar to SPDT. Some suppliers use
hangeoverorSingl
SPCO SPCO/SPTT for switches with a stable
e pole, centre off
SPTT, c.o. off position in the center and SPDT for
or Single Pole,
those without
Triple Throw

Double pole, Double Equivalent to two SPST switches

DPST
single throw pole controlled by a single mechanism

Double pole, Equivalent to two SPDT switches

DPDT
double throw controlled by a single mechanism.
Double pole Equivalent to DPDT. Some suppliers
changeover use DPCO for switches with a stable
DPCO
or Double pole, off position in the center and DPDT for
centre off those without.
 DPDT switch internally wired for
Intermediat polarity-reversal applications: only four
e switch rather than six wires are brought outside
the switch housing.

Electronic switches:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Early telephone
systems used an automatically operated toggle switch to connect telephone callers; telephone
exchanges contain one or more crossbar switches today
The Electromechanical Relay

The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical connection between two or
more points in response to the application of a control signal. The most common and widely used
type of electrical relay is the electromechanical relay or EMR.

An Electrical Relay

The most fundamental control of any equipment is the ability to turn it “ON” and “OFF”. The
easiest way to do this is using switches to interrupt the electrical supply. Although switches can
be used to control something, they have their disadvantages. The biggest one is that they have to
be manually (physically) turned “ON” or “OFF”. Also, they are relatively large, slow and only
switch small electrical currents.

Electrical Relays however, are basically electrically operated switches that come in many shapes,
sizes and power ratings suitable for all types of applications. Relays can also have single or
multiple contacts within a single package with the larger power relays used for mains voltage or
high current switching applications being called “Contactors”.

In this tutorial about electrical relays we are just concerned with the fundamental operating
principles of “light duty” electromechanical relays we can use in motor control or robotic circuits.
Such relays are used in general electrical and electronic control or switching circuits either
mounted directly onto PCB boards or connected free standing and in which the load currents are
normally fractions of an ampere up to 20+ amperes. The relay circuit are common in Electronics
applications.

As their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert a
magnetic flux generated by the application of a low voltage electrical control signal either AC or
DC across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical force which operates the electrical
contacts within the relay. The most common form of electromechanical relay consist of an
energizing coil called the “primary circuit” wound around a permeable iron core.

This iron core has both a fixed portion called the yoke, and a moveable spring loaded part called
the armature, that completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap between the fixed
electrical coil and the moveable armature. The armature is hinged or pivoted allowing it to freely
move within the generated magnetic field closing the electrical contacts that are attached to it.
Connected between the yoke and armature is normally a spring (or springs) for the return stroke
to “reset” the contacts back to their initial rest position when the relay coil is in the “de-
energized” condition, i.e. turned “OFF”.

Electromechanical Relay Construction

In our simple relay above, we have two sets of electrically conductive contacts. Relays may be
“Normally Open”, or “Normally Closed”. One pair of contacts are classed as Normally Open,
(NO) or make contacts and another set which are classed as Normally Closed, (NC) or break
contacts. In the normally open position, the contacts are closed only when the field current is
“ON” and the switch contacts are pulled towards the inductive coil.
In the normally closed position, the contacts are permanently closed when the field current is
“OFF” as the switch contacts return to their normal position. These terms Normally Open,
Normally Closed or Make and Break Contacts refer to the state of the electrical contacts when the
relay coil is “de-energized”, i.e, no supply voltage connected to the relay coil. Contact elements
may be of single or double make or break designs. An example of this arrangement is given
below.

The relays contacts are electrically conductive pieces of metal which touch together completing a
circuit and allow the circuit current to flow, just like a switch. When the contacts are open the
resistance between the contacts is very high in the Mega-Ohms, producing an open circuit
condition and no circuit current flows.

When the contacts are closed the contact resistance should be zero, a short circuit, but this is not
always the case. All relay contacts have a certain amount of “contact resistance” when they are
closed and this is called the “On-Resistance”, similar to FET’s.

With a new relay and contacts this ON-resistance will be very small, generally less than
0.2Ωbecause the tips are new and clean, but over time the tip resistance will increase.

Electrical Relay Contact Types.

As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally Closed, (NC) used to
describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can also be classed by
their actions. Electrical relays can be made up of one or more individual switch contacts with each
“contact” being referred to as a “pole”. Each one of these contacts or poles can be connected or
“thrown” together by energizing the relays coil and this gives rise to the description of the contact
types as being:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw

 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw
  DPST – Double Pole Single Throw
 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw

with the action of the contacts being described as “Make” (M) or “Break” (B). Then a simple
relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact description of:

“Single Pole Double Throw – (Break before Make)”, or SPDT – (B-M)

Examples of just some of the more common diagrams used for electrical relay contact types to
identify relays in circuit or schematic diagrams is given below but there are many more possible
configurations.

Electrical Relay Contact Configurations

 Where:
 C is the Common terminal
 NO is the Normally Open contact
 NC is the Normally Closed contact

1.6 Procedure:
1. Take the unknown resistors, capacitors and inductors.
2. Find unknown components values by using color code.
3. Take different Diodes, Transistors, and MOSFETs and observe construction.
4. Take different types of switches and observe its working with applications.
5. Take different types of Relays and observe its contacts and working.

1.7. Observation Table:

Sr. Particulars Color Code/Number Values in

No. Units
1 Resistor R1
2 ResistorR2
3 ResistorR3
4 Capacitor C1 (Ceramic)
5 CapacitorC2 (Ceramic)
6 CapacitorC3 (Ceramic)
 7 CapacitorC4 (Electrolytic)
8 CapacitorC5 (Electrolytic)
9 CapacitorC6 (Electrolytic)
10 Inductor L1
11 InductorL2
12 InductorL3

1.8. Result:

1.9. Conclusion:

1.10 Specification of Equipment’s used: NA

1.11 Questions for Continuous Assessment/Viva:

1. Explain the procedure to measure the value of resistor.
2. Find the values of following resistor using color codes.
a) Red, Black, Yellow, Gold
b) Yellow, Black, Black, Gold
c) Brown, Black, Black, Black, Brown
d) Brown, Orange, Black, Black, Brown
e) Brown, Orange, Black, Green, Brown
f) Brown, Black, Black, Brown, Brown
g) Red, Red, Orange, Gold
h) Blue, Green, Red, Gold
3. Find the color codes of following resistor values in four bands.
a) 2.2KΩ±5% b) 470 KΩ±5% c) 100Ω±5% d) 58KΩ±5% e) 680KΩ±5%
f) 1KΩ±5%
4. Find the color codes of following resistor values in four bands.
a) 15KΩ±1% b) 18KΩ±0.5% c) 1.8KΩ±2% d) 58KΩ±5% e) 10KΩ±5%
f) 1KΩ±5%
5. Find the values of following ceramic capacitors.

a) 100, b) 101, c) 102, d) 103, e) 104, f) 105

6. What is the use of relay? Explain its operation with its symbol.
7. Draw the symbol of fixed and variable resister, fixed and variable capacitor, inductor and
transformer.
8. List the types of switches.
9. List the types of Diodes, Transistors and MOSFETs and its uses.

Signature of Staff with Date

C P A Total
04 04 02 10
Experiment No: 02 Date:
2.1 Aim: Measurements using various measuring equipment’s:

a) Set up CRO and function generator for measurement of voltage, frequency

b) Obtain the phase shift between to signals using CRO with the help of Lissagous pattern.
2.2 Objectives:
1. To study and understand Digital Multimeters.
2. To measure voltage and resistance using Digital Multimeters.
3. To study and understand Function Generator and CRO.
4. To measure ac voltage, frequency of ac signal and phase measurement of two signals by
using CRO.

2.3 Hardware used:

Components: Resistors, capacitors, breadboard, connecting wires, probes, etc.
Equipment’s: Function Generator, CRO, Power Supply.
2.4 Software used: NA
2.5. Theory:
Digital multimeter
Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A
standard multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and
resistance. There are two categories of multimeter, analog multimeter and digital multimeter. A
multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a
bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as
batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
Multimeter can measure many quantities, the common measurements are:
 Voltage in volts.  Conductance in Siemens.
 Current in amperes.  Inductance in henrys
 Resistance in ohms.  Audio signal levels in decibels.
 Additionally, multimeter may also  Digital multimeter may also include
measure: circuits for:
 Capacitance in farads.  Continuity that beeps when a circuit
 Frequency in hertz conducts.
 Duty cycle as a percentage.  Diodes and Transistors
 Temperature in degrees Celsius or
Fahrenheit.
Resolution
The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in "digits" of resolution. For example, the term
5½ digits refer to the number of digits displayed on the readout of a multimeter. By convention, a
half digit can display either a zero or a one, while a three-quarters digit can display a numeral
higher than a one but not nine. Commonly, a three-quarters digit refers to a maximum value of 3
or 5. The fractional digit is always the most significant digit in the displayed value. A 5½ digit
multimeter would have five full digits that display values from 0 to 9 and one half digit that could
only display 0 or 1. Such a meter could show positive or negative values from 0 to 199,999. A 3¾
digit meter can display a quantity from 0 to 3,999 or 5,999, depending on the manufacturer.
Specifying "display counts" is another way to specify the resolution. Display counts give the
largest number, or the largest number plus one (so the count number looks nicer) the multimeter'
display can show, ignoring a decimal separator. For example, a 5½ digit multimeter can also be
specified as a 199999 display count or 200000 display count multimeter.
Accuracy
Digital multimeter generally takes measurements with accuracy superior to their analog
counterparts. Analog multimeter typically measure with three to five percent accuracy. Standard
portable digital multimeters claim to be capable of taking measurements with an accuracy of 0.5%
on DC voltage and current scales. Mainstream bench-top multimeters make claims to have as
great accuracy as ±0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies in the parts per
million figures.
Sensitivity and input impedance
The current load or how much current is drawn from the circuit being tested may affect a
multimeter's accuracy. A small current draw usually will result in more precise measurements.
With improper usage or too much current load, a multimeter may be damaged therefore rendering
its measurements unreliable and substandard.Meters with electronic amplifiers in them, such as
all digital multimeters and analog meters using a transistor for amplification, have an input
impedance that is usually considered high enough not to disturb the circuit tested. This is often
one million ohms, or ten million ohms. The standard input impedance allows use of external
probes to extend the direct-current measuring range up to tens of thousands of volts.
Most analog multimeters of the moving pointer type are unbuffered, and draw current from the
circuit under test to deflect the meter pointer. The impedance of the meter varies depending on the
basic sensitivity of the meter movement and the range which is selected.
Commonly available measurement enhancements include:
1. Auto-ranging, which selects the correct range for the quantity under test so that the most
significant digits are shown. For example, a four-digit multimeter would automatically select an
appropriate range to display 1.234 instead of 0.012, or overloading. Auto-ranging meters usually
include a facility to 'freeze' the meter to a particular range, because a measurement that causes
frequent range changes is distracting to the user.
2. Auto-polarity for direct-current readings, shows if the applied voltage is positive (agrees with
meter lead labels) or negative (opposite polarity to meter leads).
3. Sample and hold, which will latch the most recent reading for examination after the
instrument is removed from the circuit under test.
4. Current-limited tests for voltage drop across semiconductor junctions. While not a
replacement for a transistor tester, this facilitates testing diodes and a variety of transistor types.
5. A graphic representation of the quantity under test, as a bar graph. This makes go/no-go
testing easy, and also allows spotting of fast-moving trends.
6. A low-bandwidth oscilloscope.
7. Automotive circuit testers, including tests for automotive timing and dwell signals.
8. Simple data acquisition features to record maximum and
minimum readings over a given period, or to take a number of
samples at fixed intervals.
Diagram:
Front panel of DMM is shown in figure 2.1
It is equipped with the following features:
1) Basic DC Volts Accuracy 0.5%
2) DC Voltage measurement 400.0mV to 600V
3) AC Voltage measurement 400.0mV to 600V
4) DC Current measurement 40.00mA to 10.00A
5) AC current measurement 40.00mA to 10.00A
6) Resistance measurement 400.0 Ohm to 40.00M Ohm
7) Diode and Continuity Testing
8) Capacitance measurement 4.000nF to 40.00µF
9) Frequency measurement 100.0Hz to 400.0 kHz
10) Selection of input resistance for voltage measurement
11) Overload warning
12) Hold Function facility
13) Protective cover for rough operating
conditions
14) Automatic/manual measuring range
selection
15) Power Economizing circuit
The display of DMM is shown in fig. 2.2
having following properties :
1) Digital display with comma and
polarity display
2) Low Battery Indication
3) Display for REL and HOLD as well
MIN MAX storage
4) Continuity test display: speaker
symbol appears when acoustic signal
is switched on
5) Display for diode measurement
6) Display for exceeding of measuring
range
7) Indicator for analog display
8) Measurement unit display
9) Scale for analog display
10) Display for automatic or manual
measuring range selection
11) Display for selected type of current
(AC or DC)
 B.Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time
and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability,
stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart
of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically as in Figure below:
 CRO Operation:
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. In general, the instrument is
operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and
applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is
applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident
with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator,
initiating the sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and
applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are made for applying
an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may
be bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.
CRO Controls
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions and thus
make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to most
oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier,
or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting ac
send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant
component.
Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as
follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
Function Generator
A function
generator is a piece of
electronic test equipment
used to generate electrical
waveforms. Analog
function generators
usually generate a triangle
waveform as the basis for
all of its other outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor
from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As
the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a
comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor,
different frequencies may be obtained.
Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means of
modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to automatically and repetitively "sweep" the
frequency of the output waveform (by means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two
operator-determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a
given electronic circuit.
Operational instructions:
FRONT PANEL:-
1. POWER Switch – Pressing this push switch turns on power.
2. POWER Lamp – LED Lights up when power is on.
3. Frequency Dial -The variable potentiometer varies output frequency within the selected range
with the frequency range selector.
4. SWEEP WIDTH / Release on Control - Releasing the switch selects internal sweep and rotating
variable potentiometer Controls sweep width. Rotate it counterclockwise to get a minimum
sweep width (1:1) and rotate clockwise to get maximum sweep. (100:1). To get a maximum
sweep width, set the frequency dial to minimum scale ( below 0.2 scale). Pushing the knob
 selects external sweep, which is implemented, when external sweep voltage is applied to the
VCF input connector.
5. SWEEP RATE Control This controls sweep rate (sweep frequency) of internal sweep oscillator.
6. SYMMETRY Control (Release ON) This controls symmetry (duty cycle) of output signal
waveform within range of 10: 1 to 1: 10.
7. DC OFFSET Control (Release ON) - The DC offset control can be provide up to ±10V open
circuit, or ± 5V into 50Ω.Clockwise rotation admixes positive voltage and counter.
Anticlockwise rotation admixes negative voltage.
8. AMPLITUDE /Release -20dB, -40dB, -60dB Control - Amplitude of output signals can be
controlled by this potentiometer. Maximum Attenuation is -60dB when both (-20dB &-40dB)
switches are released. So the output signal can be attenuated by -80dB when both are released &
potentiometer rotated fully counterclockwise.
FREQUENCY RANGE Selector Select one of the following seven ranges of oscillation frequency
as desired. frequency can be selected in range between 0.2Hz ~ 2Hz or 2Hz ~ 20Hz or 20Hz ~200Hz
or 200Hz ~ 2KHz or 2kHz ~ 20KHz or 20KHz ~ 200KHz or 200KHz ~ 2MHz
9. FUNCTION Selector Push one of three knobs to get a desired waveform out of sine wave,
triangle wave and square wave.
10. VCF IN Connector Frequency of output signal can be varied by applying voltage to this
connector. Application of voltage from 0 to + 10V provides frequency variation Up to 100:1.
11. TTL – OUTPUT Connector TTL – Level Square waves output from here
12. OUTPUT Connector (50Ω ) This is the main output connector for sine wave, triangle wave and
square wave selected with the FUNCTION Selector. (DO NOT SHORT)
Applications:
1. To generate different waveforms like sine, square, triangular, TTL.
2. In laboratories for testing of many circuits or giving as input to the circuit.
3. RF function generator is used to generate RF output
2.6. Procedure:
A. DMM:
1. Select function of function generator as a sine wave with frequency 1 KHz. Connect red probe of
DMM to +ve terminal of function generator probe & black to the –ve terminal of function generator
probe. Keep function knob of DMM on AC voltage. Measure the AC voltage reading on multimeter.
2. Set the DC voltage on DC power supply. Connect red probe of DMM to +ve terminal of DC power
supply & black to the –ve terminal of power supply. Keep function knob of DMM on DC voltage.
Switch on the power Supply. Measure the Dc voltage reading on multimeter.
3. For resistance measurement connect the multimeter
across unknown resistance. Keep the DMM on resistance
measurement position.
B. CRO:
A] For AC voltage measurement:-
1. Connect CRO probe to function generator.
2. Select Sine function from function generator.
3. From display screen on CRO measure amplitude of given waveform by measuring Vertical
divisions between peak to peak & multiplying it by volts/div range.
4. Time period for one cycle is measured by counting horizontal divisions between one cycle &
multiply it by time /div range.
5. Frequency is inverse of time.
B] Phase shift measurement:-
1. Apply input signal of 1Vp-p , 1KHz freq. to series RC circuit on bread board with the help of
function generator.
2. Observe both input and output across RC circuit on CRO.
2. Measure Td (delay time) between two signals & also T( time period) of signal
3. ɸ= (Td/T)×3600
4.Use ellipse method.ɸ =sin-1(A/B).
2.7. Observation Table/ Waveforms:
A] Voltage and Resistance Measurement using DMM:
Sr. No. DC voltage (V) Measured DC Voltage

1.
2.
3.
4.
B] For AC voltage and frequency measurement using CRO:-
AC
Number of Volts/ Vp= Horizontal Time/
voltage Time period Frequency
Sr.No vertical Div Vp- divisions Div.
VP-P Vrms T= C x D F = 1/T
. divisions Range
(AxB) p /2 per cycle range
(sec.) (Hz)
A B (V) C D
(V)
1.
2.
3.
 4.
C] Phase shift measurement using CROby Lissageous pattern:-

Phase shift
Sr. Vertical divisions of ellipse when it cuts to Vertical divisions between major
ɸ=
No. Y axis in its center position = A diagonal of ellipse = B
sin -1 (A/B)

1.
2.
3.
4.

2.8. Result:

2.9. Conclusion:

2.10 Specification of Equipment’s used (can be attached as annexure separately)

2.11 Questions for Continuous Assessment /Viva:

Q1.Draw the signals for your observations on graph paper with suitable measurement.
Q2.What is difference between analog and digital multimeter?
Q3.How to test transistor, diode on DMM explain with neat diagram?
Q4.State the applications of DMM.
Q5.What is the use of CRO?
Q6.How to test the probe on CRO, give the condition for good and bad probe?
Q7.What is the use of function generator?
Q8.What is the frequency range of given function generator?
 Signature of Staff with Date
C P A Total
04 04 02 10
 Experiment No. 3

STUDY OF REGULATED POWER

SUPPLY

13
Experiment No: 03 Date:
3.1 Aim:
A] P-N Junction Diode Characteristics
3.2 Objectives:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
3.3 Hardware used:
Name Range Qty
Diodes IN 4007(Si) 1
Resistor 1Kohms 1
Bread Board 1
Regulated Power 0-30V DC 1
Supply
Digital Ammeter 0-200 uA/20mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-2V/20V DC 1
Connecting wire
Regulated DC power 0-30V
supply
Ammeter 0-20mA
Voltmeter 0-20V

3.4 Software used: NA

3.5 Theory:
A] PN Junction Diode
Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into the other side
of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a Junction called depletion
region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This Region gives rise to a potential barrier V γ
called Cut- in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts conducting. It can
conduct beyond this Potential.
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is
connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (N- side)
then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-side
14
and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current (injected
minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and entering N-side of the diode, due to
electrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of the diode). Assuming current flowing through
the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short-circuited switch.If –ve terminal of
the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to
cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. Inthis condition an amount equal to
reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on
p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away from the junction thereby increasing the depleted
region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse
saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current is due to thermally generated
carriers. Assuming current flowing through the diode to be negligible, the diode can be approximated
as an open circuited switch.
The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:

I=current flowing in the diode I0=reverse saturation current

V=voltage applied to the diode
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,600=26mV (@ room temp).
η =1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse
saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.
Circuit Diagram

Reverse Biased Condition

15
3.6 Procedure:
Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vf gradually in steps of 0.1 volts upto 5volts and note down the corresponding readings of If .
3. Step Size is not fixed because of non-linear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e. if output
variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
4. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
Reverse biased condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Vary Vr gradually in steps of 0.5 volts upto 8 volts and note down the corresponding readings of Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages. (Ir = VR / R, where VR
is the Voltage across 10KΩ Resistor).
Observations
Si diode in forward biased conditions:

Si diode in reverse biased conditions:

16
Graph (Instructions):
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark + ve x-axis as Vf
- Ve x-axis as Vr
+ Ve y-axis as If
- ve y-axis as Ir.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Si reverse biased
condition in third Quadrant.
Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage the
diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.

17
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
B
3.8 Result:
A] PN Junction diode
1. Cut in voltage = ……… V
3.9 Conclusion:

3.10 Specifications:

For Silicon Diode IN 4007: - For Zener Diode IN 4148: -

Max. Forward Current = 1A Breakdown Voltage = 5.1V
Max. Reverse Current = 30µA Power dissipation = 0.75W
Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V Max. Forward Current = 1A
Max. Reverse Voltage = 1000V
Max. Power dissipation = 30mw
Temperature = - 65 to 2000C

3.11 Questions for continuous assessment/VIVA-VOCE

1. How depletion region is formed in the PN junction?
18
2. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?
3. What is cut-in or knee voltage? Specify its value in case of Ge or Si?
4. What is maximum forward current and maximum reverse voltage? What is it required?
5. What is leakage current?
6. How does PN-junction diode acts as a switch?
7. What is the effect of temperature in the diode reverse characteristics?
8. What is break down voltage?
9. What is incremental resistance of a diode?
10. What is diode equation?
11. What is the value of VT in the diode equation?
12. Explain the dynamic resistance of a diode?
13. Explain the phenomenon of breakdown in PN- diode?
14. What is an ideal diode? How does it differ from a real diode?
15. What are the specifications of a diode?
16. Temperature co-efficient of resistance of
(i) Metals (ii) Intrinsic semiconductor (iii) Extrinsic semiconductor
(iv) FET (v) BJT
17. What is the internal impedance of
(i) Ideal current source (ii) Ideal voltage source (iii) Ammeter
18. What is a zener diode? How it differs from an ordinary diode?

19. Explain the concept of zener breakdown?

20. What is avalanche breakdown?

21. What type of biasing must be used when a zener diode is used as a regulator?

22. Current in a 1W – 10V zener diode must be limited to a maximum of what value?

23. What are the advantages of zener diode?

24. State reason why an ordinary diode suffers avalanche breakdown rather than zener breakdown?
25. If impurities in a zener diode increases what happens to the forward voltage?
26. Can zener be used as a rectifier?
27. Specifications of the zener diode?
19
20
21
 Signature of Staff with Date
C P A Total
04 04 02 10

22
23
 Experiment No. 4

STUDY OF SINGLE STAGE BJT

COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

24
Experiment No: 4 Date:
4.1 Aim: Rectifier circuits: Implement DC Regulated Power Supply using bridge rectifier & diodes.

4.2 Objectives:
a) Implement half wave, full wave and bridge rectifier using diodes
b) Observe the effect of capacitor filter on rectifier output
4.3 Equipment/Hardware used:

Name Range Quantity

Transformer 9-0-9/12-0-12V 1
Bread Board 1
Digital Multimeter 1
Resistor 1kohms, 10Kohms 1
Connecting wries

25
26
A) Symbol:

DATA SHEET SPECIFICATIONS:-

27
Title: Study of single stage BJT Common Emitter amplifier
circuit Aim: For a given single stage BJT CE amplifier circuit
a. Identify pins of BJT and study of its data sheet specification
b. To measure voltages and observe waveform at input and output terminal of
single stage BJT CE amplifier circuit.
c. Calculate voltage gain of amplifier

Theory:
B. Common Emitter Amplifier
Objective:
To examine the Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier characteristic of transistor and find gain

Apparatus:
1. Two DC power supply.
2. Function generator.
3. meter.
4. Oscilloscope.
5. Transistor BC547, Resistors 1 KΩ and 100 KΩ, Capacitors 1µf.

THEORY
Fig. 1 and 2 show the circuit of a single-stage CE amplifier using an NPN
transistor. Here, base is the driven element. The input signal is injected into the base
emitter circuit whereas output signal is taken out from the collector emitter circuit. The
E/B junction is forward-biased by VBB and C/B junction is reversed-biased by VCC (in
fact, same battery VCC can provide dc power for both base and collector as in Fig. 2).
The Q-point or working condition is determined by VCC together with RB and RC. The
dc equation is (Fig. 2).

28
Fig. 1

Fig. 2

29
Circuit Operations
When positive half-cycle of the signal is applied (Fig. 1)
1. VBE is increased because it is already positive w.r.t. the ground.
2. it leads to increase in forward bias of base emitter junction.
3. IB is increased somewhat.
4. IC is increased by α times the increased in IB.
5. Drop IC RC is increased considerably and cons- equently.
6. VCE is decreased as seen from the equation given above.

Hence, negative half-cycle of the output is obtained. It means that a positive-

going input signal becomes a negative going output signal as shown in Fig. 1 and 2.
Characteristics of a CE Amplifier
A CE transistor amplifier has the following characteristics:
1. it has moderately low input resistance (1 K to 2 K),
2. its output resistance is moderately large (50 K or so),
3. its current gain (β) is high (50–300),
4. it has very high voltage gain of the order of 1500 or so,
5. it produces very high power gain of the order of 10,000 times or 40 dB,
6. it produces phase reversal of input signal i.e. input and output signals are 180° out
of phase with each other.
Procedure:
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. (3), it is a single stage amplifier
1. Connect the circuit.
2. Give an input to the amplifier so that the output is 4Vpp at 1 kHz Measure the
input voltage (f=1 kHz).
3. Give an input of 0.5V p-p to the amplifier.
4. Measure the output voltage
5. calculatate gain =o/p divided by input voltage

30
Circuit diagram:

31
Questions:
1. Determine Ai, Av.

2. What is the effect of Rb on amplifier?

3. Why is CE proffered?

4. What is power gain?

5. Expalin Q point

CONCLUSION:-

Thus we have identified pins of transistor BC547 and studied CE circuit.

TEACHER`S REMARK

SIGNATURE & DATE

32
 Experiment No. 5

STUDY OF OP-AMP BASED

AMPLIFIERS CIRCUIT

33
Aim: Study of op-amp based amplifiers circuit
a) Identify pins of op-amp(such as IC741)
b) Implement given voltage equation for 2 input with op-amp based summing and
difference amplifier circuit
Requirement: IC741,Dual power supply, DMM, Bread Board, connecting wires
Theory:
Operational amplifier:
An op-amp is a versatile devices that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input
signals and originally designed for performing mathematical operation such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and integration .

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage

amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this
configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is
typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential difference between its
input terminals.
Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to do
mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits.
Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by external components with little
dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself,
which makes op-amps popular building blocks for circuit design.

Op-amp characteristics
An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties:
 Infinite open-loop gain
 Infinite voltage range available at the output
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate

34
  Infinite input impedance and so zero input current and zero input offset voltage
 Zero output impedance
 Zero noise
 Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
 Infinite Power supply rejection ratio
Pin Configuration:
The pin configuration of op-amp IC741 in the 8 pin mini DIP package is shown in
fig. Pin number 7 is connecting the positive supply voltage +V while pin number 4 is to
be connected to a negative supply voltage –V. Thus IC 741 needs a dual power supply.
Pin number 2 and 3 are inverting and non-inverting input respectively and we get output
voltage at pin number 6. Pin number 1 and 5 can be used to nullify the offset voltage and
pin number 8is a dummy pin which is not connected anywhere and hence should be left
open

Summing Ampilfier:
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit based upon the standard
Inverting Operational Amplifier configuration that can be used for combining multiple
inputs. We saw previously in the inverting amplifier tutorial that the inverting amplifier
has a single input voltage, ( Vin ) applied to the inverting input terminal. If we add more
input resistors to the input, each equal in value to the original input resistor, Rin we end
up with another operational amplifier circuit called a Summing Amplifier, "summing
inverter" or even a "voltage adder" circuit as shown below.

35
The output voltage, ( Vout ) now becomes proportional to the sum of the input voltages,
V1, V2, V3 etc. Then we can modify the original equation for the inverting amplifier to
take account of these new inputs thus:

However, if all the input impedances, ( Rin ) are equal in value, we can simplify the
above equation to give an output voltage of:
Summing Amplifier Equation

We now have an operational amplifier circuit that will amplify each individual input
voltage and produce an output voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic "SUM"
of the three individual input voltages V1, V2 and V3. We can also add more inputs if
required as each individual input "see's" their respective resistance, Rin as the only input
impedance.
This is because the input signals are effectively isolated from each other by the "virtual
earth" node at the inverting input of the op-amp. A direct voltage addition can also be
obtained when all the resistances are of equal value and Rƒ is equal to Rin.

36
A Scaling Summing Amplifier can be made if the individual input resistors are "NOT"
equal. Then the equation would have to be modified to:

To make the math's a little easier, we can rearrange the above formula to make the
feedback resistor RF the subject of the equation giving the output voltage as:

This allows the output voltage to be easily calculated if more input resistors are
connected to the amplifiers inverting input terminal. The input impedance of each
individual channel is the value of their respective input resistors, ie, R1, R2, R3 ... etc.
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to effectively
"Add" or "Sum" (hence its name) together several individual input signals. If the inputs
resistors, R1, R2, R3 etc, are all equal a unity gain inverting adder can be made. However,
if the input resistors are of different values a "scaling summing amplifier" is produced
which gives a weighted sum of the input signals.
Differential Amplifier:
Thus far we have used only one of the operational amplifiers inputs to connect to the
amplifier, using either the "inverting" or the "non-inverting" input terminal to amplify a
single input signal with the other input being connected to ground. But we can also
connect signals to both of the inputs at the same time producing another common type of
operational amplifier circuit called a Differential Amplifier.
Basically, as we saw in the first tutorial about operational amplifiers, all op-amps are
"Differential Amplifiers" due to their input configuration. But by connecting one voltage
signal onto one input terminal and another voltage signal onto the other input terminal the
resultant output voltage will be proportional to the "Difference" between the two input
voltage signals of V1 and V2.
Then differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages making this
type of operational amplifier circuit a Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which
adds

37
or sums together the input voltages. This type of operational amplifier circuit is
commonly known as a Differential Amplifier configuration and is shown below:
Differential Amplifier

By connecting each input inturn to 0v ground we can use superposition to solve for the
output voltage Vout. Then the transfer function for a Differential Amplifier circuit is
given as:
When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the differential
amplifier can be simplified to the following expression:
Differential Amplifier Equation

If all the resistors are all of the same ohmic value, that is: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 then the
circuit will become a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier and the voltage gain of the
amplifier will be exactly one or unity. Then the output expression would simply be
Vout = V2 - V1. Also note that if input V1 is higher than input V2 the ouput voltage sum
will be negative, and if V2 is higher than V1, the output voltage sum will be positive.

38
Conclusion:
Thus we have studied the op-amp, pin of IC741 .also the op-amp as a adder and
difference amplifier circuit.

Questions:-
1. What re the different pins of IC 741?
2. What is gain of Inverting Opamp?
3. What is type of power supply required by opamp.
4. List various properties of Opamp.
5. Explain Virtual ground concept.

TEACHER`S REMARK
SIGNATURE & DATE

39
EXPERIMENT NO 6 STUDY OF IC 555 TIMER C

40
Fig. Functional Diagram of IC 555

Pin Diagram

41
Aim: Study of IC 555 Timer circuit.
a. Identify pins of IC 555 Timer
b. Observe output waveform and measure frequency of output wave for IC
555 Timer used in Astable Mode
Requirement: IC555 ,Capacitor ,Resistor, Power supply, CRO, CRO probe
Theory:
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one
package.
The 555 has three operating modes:
 Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse
generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree
switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-
width modulation (PWM) and so on.
 Astable (free-running) mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include
LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple
ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as
timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the
output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based
circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even
provide calibration means.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS
pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched
switches.

42
Functional Diagram Of IC 555:
Following figure shows the internal block diagram of IC555 which consist of two
comparator upper & lower, SR flip-flop & discharge transistor.
Pin Description For IC 555

Fig- Circuit Diagram of IC555 as a timer in astable mode.

43
 Fig. input & output waveform

IC 555 as Astable Multivibrator:

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having
a specified frequency. Resistor R 1 is connected between V CC and the discharge pin (pin 7)
and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger
(pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is
charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low
impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the
capacitor.
In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2
and C.
Astable 555 Oscillator Charge and Discharge Times
t1 = 0.693(R1+R2).C and
t2 = 0.693*R2*C
Where, R is in Ω's and C in Farads
555 Oscillator Cycle Time
T = t1+t2 = 0.693(R1+2*R2).C
The output frequency of oscillations can be found by inverting the equation above for the
total cycle time giving a final equation for the output frequency of an Astable 555
Oscillator as:

44
555 Oscillator Frequency Equation

555 Oscillator Duty Cycle

The duty cycle has no units as it is a ratio but can be expressed as a percentage (%). If
both timing resistors, R1 and R2 are equal the output duty cycle will be given as 2:1 or
33%.
If R1 = 1kΩ, R2 = 2kΩ and capacitor C = 10uF.
t1 - Charge "ON" time is calculated as:

t2 - Discharge "OFF" time is calculated as:

Total periodic time is calculated as:

The output frequency, ƒ is therefore given as:

Giving a duty cycle value of:

45
Result:

Ton (Therotical)
Ton (Practical)
Toff (Therotical)
Toff (Practicall)

Conclusion: T
hus we studied the IC555 as Astable multivibrator

TEACHER`S REMARK

SIGNATURE & DATE

46
EXPERIMENT NO 7 STUDY OF DIGITAL CIRC

47
48
Aim: Study of Digital Circuits.
a. Identify pins of Digital logic gates ICs such as AND, OR, NOT, Ex-OR, NAND.
b. Implement Half & Full Adder circuit with basic logic gate ICs
Requirement: Bread- Board, Digital logic gate ICs, Connecting wire, Power Supply,
LED
Theory:
Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using electronic gates. The
following points are important to understand.
 Electronic gates require a power supply.
 Gate INPUTS are driven by voltages having two nominal values, e.g. 0V and 5V
representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively.
 The OUTPUT of a gate provides two nominal values of voltage only, e.g. 0V and
5V representing logic 0 and logic 1 respectively. In general, there is only one
output to a logic gate except in some special cases.
 There is always a time delay between an input being applied and the output
responding.
Truth Tables
 Truth tables are used to help show the function of a logic gate. If you are unsure
about truth tables and need guidence on how go about drawning them for
individual gates or logic circuits then use the truth table section link.

Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND,
OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described
below with the aid of truth tables.
AND gate : The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all
its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind
that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB

49
OR gate: The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more
of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

NOT gate: The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of
the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the
inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the
top, as

shown at the outputs.

NAND gate: This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a
NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The
symbol is an AND gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents
inversion.

50
NOR gate: This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT
gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle
represents inversion.

EXOR gate: The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either,
but not both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign is used to show the EOR
operation.

EXNOR gate:
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low
output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate
with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

Pin Configuration:

51
52
Half Adder and Full Adder:
We are familiar with ALU , which will perform all arithmetic and logic operation
but ALU doesn’t perform decimal no’s. They process binary no’s.
Half Adder : It is logic circuit that adds two bits . It produces the output, sum & carry .
The Boolean equation for sum and carry are
Sum=A+B
Carry=A.B
Therefore, sum produces 1 when A & B are different and carry is 1 when A & B are 1.
Full Adder: It is logic circuit that adds three bits . It produces the output sum & carry .
The Boolean equation for sum and carry are
Sum=A+B+C
Carry=A.B+(A+B)C
Therefore , sum produces one when input is containing odd no’s of one & carry is one
when there are two or more one in input.

Logic Diagram :

Half Adder Full Adder

Procedure:
1) Connect the ckt as shown in fig for half adder
2) Apply different combination of input to the input terminal.
3) Note the output for half adder
4) Repeat for Full adder
5) The result should be in accordance with Truth Table

53
Observation Table:
Half Adder :

Full Adder:

Result: The half adder and full adder circuit are verified.
Conclusion: Thus we studied the logic gates and also verified the truth table of half and
full adder.
Que.
1. why NAND & NOR gates are called universal gates?
2. What is combinational circuit?
3. What is sequential circuit?
4. What is demorgan’s theorem?
5. What is mean by standard SOP & POS form?
6. What is mean by positive logic & negative logic?

TEACHER`S REMARK
SIGNATURE & DATE

54
55
EXPERIMENT NO 8 BUILT AND TEST OP-AMP A
INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT

56
Experiment No.:08 Date:

Aim: Built and test op-amp as an integrator circuit

Requirement: IC 741,Dual power supply, CRO, Bread board, connecting wires, probes
Theory:
Op-amp Integrator:
The circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integration of the input
voltage waveform is called as an integrator or integrating amplifier
The Op-amp Integrator Amplifier
If we were to change the purely resistive ( Rƒ ) feedback element of an inverting
amplifier to that of a frequency dependant impedance, ( Z ) type complex element, such
as a Capacitor, C. What would be the effect on the output voltage. By replacing this
feedback resistance with a capacitor we now have an RC Network across the operational
amplifier producing an Op-amp Integrator circuit as shown below.
Op-amp Integrator Circuit

As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that
performs the mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to
respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator produces an
output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of
time a voltage is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or
discharges the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.

57
 When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier,
the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit
allowing maximum current to flow via the input resistor, Rin as potential difference
exists between the two plates. No current flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a
virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is
very low, the gain ratio of Xc/Rin is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less
than one, ( voltage follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input
voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The
capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC time constant, ( τ ) of the series RC
network. Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce an output voltage that
maintains a virtual earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is at
earth potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is negative), the potential voltage, Vc
developed across the capacitor slowly increases causing the charging current to decrease
as the impedance of the capacitor increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing
producing a linearly increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the
capacitor is fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking anymore flow of DC
current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( Xc/Rin ) is now infinite
resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop
gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation as shown below. (Saturation
occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail
or the other with little or no control in between).

58
The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by the
value of the resistor and the capacitor, "RC time constant". By changing this RC time
constant value, either by changing the value of the Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the
time in which it takes the output voltage to reach saturation can also be changed for
example.

If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input
of an Integrator Amplifier then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to
changes in the input signal. This results in the output signal being that of a sawtooth
waveform whose frequency is dependant upon the RC time constant of the
resistor/capacitor combination. This type of circuit is also known as a Ramp Generator
and the transfer function is given below.
Ramp Generator

We know from first principals that the voltage on the plates of a capacitor is equal to the
charge on the capacitor divided by its capacitance giving Q/C. Then the voltage across
the capacitor is output Vout therefore: -Vout = Q/C. If the capacitor is charging and
discharging, the rate of charge of voltage across the capacitor is given as:

59
But dQ/dt is electric current and since the node voltage of the integrating op-amp at its
inverting input terminal is zero, X = 0, the input current I(in) flowing through the input
resistor, Rin is given as:

The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C is given as:

Assuming that the input impedance of the op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no current
flows into the op-amp terminal. Therefore, the nodal equation at the inverting input
terminal is given as:

From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the OP-amp Integrator as:

To simplify the math's a little, this can also be re-written as:

60
Where ω = 2πƒ and the output voltage Vout is a constant 1/RC times the integral of the
input voltage Vin with respect to time. The minus sign ( - ) indicates a 180o phase shift
because the input signal is connected directly to the inverting input terminal of the op-
amp.
The AC or Continuous Op-amp Integrator
If we changed the above square wave input signal to that of a sine wave of
varying frequency the Op-amp Integrator performs less like an integrator and begins to
behave more like an active "Low Pass Filter", passing low frequency signals while
attenuating the high frequencies.
At 0Hz or DC, the capacitor acts like an open circuit blocking any feedback
voltage resulting in very little negative feedback from the output back to the input of the
amplifier. Then with just the feedback capacitor, C, the amplifier effectively is connected
as a normal open-loop amplifier which has very high open-loop gain resulting in the
output voltage saturating.

The AC Op-amp Integrator with DC Gain Control

This circuit connects a high value resistance in parallel with a continuously charging and
discharging capacitor. The addition of this feedback resistor, R 2 across the capacitor, C
gives the circuit the characteristics of an inverting amplifier with finite closed-loop gain
of R2/R1. The result is at very low frequencies the circuit acts as an standard integrator,

61
while at higher frequencies the capacitor shorts out the feedback resistor, R 2 due to the
effects of capacitive reactance reducing the amplifiers gain.
Unlike the DC integrator amplifier above whose output voltage at any instant will
be the integral of a waveform so that when the input is a square wave, the output
waveform will be triangular. For an AC integrator, a sinusoidal input waveform will
produce another sine wave as its output which will be 90 o out-of-phase with the input
producing a cosine wave. Further more, when the input is triangular, the output waveform
is also sinusoidal. This then forms the basis of a Active Low Pass Filter as seen before in
the filters section tutorials with a corner frequency given as.

Conclusion:
Thus we have studied the op-amp as an integrator circuit

TEACHER`S REMARK
SIGNATURE & DATE

62
 Experiment No.:09 Date:
9.1 Aim:Case Study of any one electronics appliances with block diagram, specification etc.
For a given Regulated Power supply circuit with Bridge Rectifier, Capacitor filter and three terminal
regulators
a) Identify pins of rectifier diode (such as 1N4001) and study of its datasheet specifications
b) Identify pins of Three terminal Regulator (such as LM78XX& LM79XX) and study of its
datasheet specifications
c) observe waveforms of Transformer secondary, output of Bridge rectifier, output of Regulator
9.2 Objectives: To identify anode and cathode of diode and read its data sheet.
1. To identify pins of voltage regulator and read its data sheet.
2. To observe the different stage waveforms of power supply.

9.3 Hardware used:

Components: Breadboard, Transformer, Diode (1N400X), Capacitor, Resistor, IC LM78XX
(LM79XX), Potentiometer

9.4 Software used (if applicable) / Programming Languages Used: NA

9.5. Theory:
1N4001 series diodes
The 1N4001 series is a family of popular 1.0 A general purpose silicon rectifier diodes commonly
used in AC adapters for common household appliances. Blocking voltage varies from 50 to 1000
volts. This diode is made in an axial-lead DO-41 plastic package.
The 1N4000 series were in the Motorola Silicon Rectifier Handbook in 1966, as replacements for
1N2609 through 1N2617. The 1N5400 series were announced in Electrical Design News in 1968,
along with the now lesser known 1.5 A 1N5391 series. These devices are widely used and
recommended. The table below shows the maximum repetitive reverse blocking voltages of each of
the members of the 1N4000 series.
Voltage 1 A part Voltage 1 A part
50 V 1N4001 600 V 1N4005
100 V 1N4002 800 V 1N4006
200 V 1N4003 1000 V 1N4007
400 V 1N4004
We will make use of the 78XX and 79XX series of voltage regulators. They are made by several
manufacturers, most are readily available, and are inexpensive.

63
PIN Configuration of 78XX& 79XX regulator
The LM78XX series of three terminal positive
regulators are available in the TO-220 package. Each
type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut
down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. These
devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and currents. Available output voltages: 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, and 24V. Figure
2 shows the electrical connection for the LM78XX series.
The LM79XX series of 3-terminal regulators is available with fixed output voltages of -5V, -12V, and
-15V. These devices need only a compensation capacitor (1 μF solid tantalum or 25µF aluminum
electrolytic) at the output. The LM79XX series is packaged in the TO-220 power package and is
capable of supplying 1.5A of output current with proper heat sinking. Like the LM78XX series they
hey employ internal current limiting safe area protection and thermal shutdown for protection against
virtually all overload conditions.
Block diagram of Regulated Power Supply

Figure shows a basic 5 volt general purpose power supply. A regulated power supply is one that
controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant
despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes
while performing that task, from an energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is

64
hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are
part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:
 The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.
 How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.
 How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that
employ portable energy sources).
Function of Each Component:
Transformer
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies
use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V) to a safer low
voltage.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical
connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in
the soft-iron core of the transformer. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is
(almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the
voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is
connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output)
coil to give a low output voltage.
Vp Np power out = power in
turns ratio = = and
Vs Ns Vs × Is = Vp × Ip
Vp = primary (input) voltage
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
coil
Is = secondary (output) current
Ip = primary (input) current

Rectifier

There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is the most important and it produces full-wave varying DC. A full-wave rectifier can

65
also be made from just two diodes if a center-tap transformer is used, but this method is rarely used
now that diodes are cheaper. A single diode can be used as a rectifier but it only uses the positive (+)

parts of the AC wave to produce half-wave varying DC.

.
Bridge rectifier: a bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in
special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
the entire AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier
because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as
shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current they can pass and
the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS
voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). Please see the Diodes page for more details,
including pictures of bridge rectifiers.

Bridge rectifier Output: full-wave varying DC

Filter
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to act
66
 as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is
falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid
line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it
supplies current to the output .

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 ×
RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost
in the bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V
smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small
ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the
equation below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give less
ripple. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
5 × Io
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C =
Vs × f
C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)
Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz
Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output
voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are
available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from
excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').

67
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805
+5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include a hole for attaching a heatsink if necessary.
CircuitDiagram:

Advantages of IC Regulators:
1. The power supply design becomes easy and quick.
2. The IC regulators are cheap and are easily available.
3. IC regulators are small hence they reduce the size of the power supply.
4. They are easy to use.
5. IC regulators are versatile

They have features such as programmable output, facility to boost the output voltage or current,
internal protection such as thermal shunt down, floating operation to facilitate higher output voltage
9.6 Conclusion:

9.7 Specification of Equipment’s used:

9.8 Questions for CA/Viva

68
1. Explain in brief-Load & Line regulation.
2. What is the function of voltage regulator?
3. Explain the need of regulated power supply.
4. State advantages of regulated power supply over unregulated power supply.
5. Compare series & shunt voltage regulators.
6. What is the use of capacitor in rectifier circuit explain in brief.
7. Explain step down and step up transformer in brief.

69