1.

1 Nanotechnology
It is the era of nano objects and everyone is trying to modify things in small size but good
efficiency. In this scenario, nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that combines traditional
natural, mechanical, IT and material sciences (Bhushan 2017). In nanotechnology, we are able to
create new materials with novel and practical features. These novel materials are nanoparticle-
derived nano-materials (Barkalina et al. 2014). Nano-particles are incredibly small particles with
unique capabilities that allow them to strengthen materials, deliver medicines directly to the parts
of the body where they are needed, and convert solar energy more effectively. Nanoparticles
have different qualities from traditional, bigger substance building pieces (Nasrollahzadeh et al.
2019).

Nanoparticles for their adaptable physico-chemical properties like catalytic effect, melting point,
scattering and light absorption and electrical and thermal conductance offer enhanced
performance as compared to their huge counterparts (Benelmekki 2015).Nanoparticles and
nanomaterials have gained appreciable importance in technological advancements. It is possible
to alter the attributes of nanostructures, including electrical conductance, elasticity, color and
chemical reactivity etc. by manipulating their shape, size, and internal order (Briones Llorente et
al. 2009; Serena 2016).

The most advanced technology in any field of science is nanotechnology. It is dependent on the
synthesis and intonation of nanoparticles, which must affect the metal's metallurgical
characteristics(Visweswara Rao and Hua Gan 2015). From ancient times, nanomaterials have
been utilised in undiscovered ways. Gold nanoparticles were once employed by the ancients for
treating specific illnesses and modify the colour of glasses. By using a variety of methods,
scientists have been able to show how the physiological characteristics of nanoparticles rely on
their size and form. Applications of nanotechnology have recently been discovered in the
domains of biology, agriculture, physical chemistry and the environment (Cramer et al. 2022).

Every scientific discipline uses nanotechnology, which advances previous discoveries and
creates new avenues for research. Because nanotechnology can precisely assemble each atom in
its proper location, advanced nanostructured materials can be created. It has many advantages

1
since this technology makes it simple to create chemical compounds, saves money, and reduces
the need for raw materials and energy (Ge, Lei, and Zare 2012).

Figure 1.1: Nanotechnology manufacturing process

Nanotechnology has the capability to generate a diverse array of items applicable to a wide
spectrum of logical domains. The terms associated with nanotechnology include creation,
manipulation, and production, with a focus on materials that possess dimensions as minuscule as
1 mm. The term "nano" is derived from the Greek word "nanos," signifying shadow-casting,
humble, or small (Rai, Yadav, and Gade 2009). Research and development in nanotechnology
are on the rise, aiming to enhance decomposition processes for the production of nano-sized
products (Albrecht, Evans, and Raston 2006).

The term "one dimensional material" refers to a substance that has a dimension in one direction
but none in the other two. One nanometre is equal to 10 -9 meters because the word "nano" alludes
to dimensions on the order of 10 -9 (Garnett, Mai, and Yang 2019).Scientists are now able to self-
assemble atoms into structures with regulated qualities using methods that were inspired by
natural processes. Currently, there are two methods for creating nanostructures. The "top down"
method, which includes precision engineering, milling, and nanolithography to fracture bulk
materials. The more recent "bottom up" method, that enables nanostructures to be created by
single elemental atom that is well-suited of self-assembly (Baig, Kammakakam, and Falath
2021).

Today, incredibly durable construction constituents linked materials with precisely regulated
structure and properties, high surface to volume ratios, and the ability to encapsulate active
molecules that can self-clean or change colour in response to environmental conditions are being
produced, especially when employing the "bottom up" methodology. (Sanchez and Sobolev
2010).

2
 Figure 1.2: Methods for Nanomaterials

1.2 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials, small sized materials demonstrate enhanced catalytic activity toward the
chemical reaction In contrast to normal microstructures, nanocrystalline materials with extremely
small grain sizes exhibit mechanical characteristics like super plasticity, extraordinary hardness,
toughness, and strength (Yaya et al. 2012).Nano powder is not the only type of nanomaterial;
additional varieties include nanofilaments, dendrimers, Nano wires and cables nanotubes,
quantum dots, composite materials, and other substances. Nanomaterials differ from other
minute atoms, macro-objects and other molecules in respect of their physico-chemical, electrical,
and magnetic properties because of the distinctive nanoscale (1-100 nm) size (Zhang 2018).

1.3 Classification of Nanomaterial on the base of their Dimensions

Nanomaterials are characterized by having at least one dimension within the nano range, with the
size of this particular dimension being less than 100 nanometres. These materials are categorized
into four distinct groups based on their dimensions, as illustrated in the figure.

Nanomaterials based upon their dimensions are categorized as:

1.3.1 Zero-Dimensional Nanomaterials (0-D)

Zero-dimensional nanomaterials exhibit all dimensions within the nano range. Examples of
nanomaterials in this category include fullerenes and quantum dot nanoparticles.

1.3.2 One-Dimensional Nanomaterials (1-D)

One-dimensional nanomaterials have all dimensions within the nano range except for one
dimension that extends beyond the nano scale. Examples of nanomaterials falling into this one-
dimensional category include nanowires, nanorods, nanotubes, and nanofibers.

1.3.3 Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials (2-D)

Two-dimensional nanomaterials encompass all dimensions within the nano range, while two
dimensions extend beyond the nano scale. Examples of such nanomaterials include monolayers,
nanofilms, and nanosheets.

3
1.3.4 Three-Dimensional Nanomaterials (3-D)
Three-dimensional nanomaterials have all three dimensions outside the nano range, making them
less distinctive as typical nanomaterials. Examples of three-dimensional nanomaterials include
bulk powders, nanowires, nanotubes, and dispersed nanoparticles.(Kolahalam et al. 2019b)

Figure1.3: Classification of nanomaterials based on dimensions

These are regarded as unique, merged, combined, accumulating forms, and their morphologies
could be uneven, elliptical, spherical, or tubular. (Vickers 2017). Nanomaterials' surface and
internal structures are frequently made up of multiple layers, phases, and components, each of
which is essential to achieving the required functionality. One nanomaterial might therefore have
multiple crystal structures with varied physiochemical properties, such as reactivity or
photocatalytic activity, depending on the environment. The unit cell of a crystal lattice is a
typical way to describe the spatial arrangement of atoms within it. Unit cell, the smallest volume
that can nevertheless exhibit the crystal's complete symmetry(Parvizi-Majidi and Begum 2016;
Kulczyk-Malecka et al. 2013).

Nanomaterials have unique and fascinating features when they are inside the critical size
range(100nm). These characteristics of nanoparticles differ from those of the bulk materials.
While macro-structured properties are similar to their bulk. When the particle size is decreased,
there are more particles on the surface. They are more mobile because the coordination number
of surface atoms is smaller than that of inner atoms (Khan et al. 2016).We may use nanoparticles
in different domains such as functional coating, catalysis, nanoelectrons, sensors and adsorbent
depending on their surface property. Due to the size of nanomaterials they are being synthesized
by using various techniques, it is possible to regulate and manipulate their properties. Given that
they have greater surface area, they can be employed as catalysts. The majority of metal
nanoparticles can be used as effective catalysts. The following fields can use nanomaterials by
utilizing the surface phenomenon(Kolahalam et al. 2019a).

Nanoscale particles are distinct from their parent or larger size counterparts in terms including
color, the integrity of the structure, transparency, optical activity, solubility, and chemical
responsiveness.(Sivanskar and Kumar 2010). The particular size of nanoscale materials allows

4
for higher solubility, size matching of cosmetic chemicals with biological structures of skin cells,
and ease of contact, which may be utilized to particularly alter cellular processes at their
naturally occurring scale. The properties of nanoparticles used in cosmetology allow for
increased protection from ultraviolet radiation, long-lasting benefits, superior finish quality, and
improved skin penetration(Katz and Dewan 2015). Nanomaterials also have a greater surface
area to mass or volume ratio than larger-sized particles, which is a beneficial characteristic. If
one of two particles of similar volume contains more molecules or atoms on its surface than the
other, and have a greater surface to volume ratio. The surface area to volume ratio of particles
increases with size reduction (Garnett, Mai, and Yang 2019).

1.4 Nanoparticles
Nanoscience involves exploring novel effects that emerge due to the nanoscale dimensions of
specific solids. Within nanotechnology, the fundamental building block is the nanoparticle.
These nanoparticles exhibit distinct characteristics encompassing mass, shape, type,
arrangement, and lattice structure(Zhang, Cui, et al. 2012). In 1908, Gustav Mie conducted a
study on the optical properties of gold, copper, and silver nanoparticles. His findings revealed
that the particle size of these nanoparticles was smaller than the wavelength of light. Mie
successfully characterized and elucidated the phenomenon known as surface plasmon resonance.
In 1959, Richard Feynman foresaw the significance of nanoscale miniaturization in driving
future innovative developments, a prediction that has since materialized into various innovative
activities today (Appenzeller, Davies, and Norton 1996).

The utilization of metal nanoparticles at the nanoparticle scale dates back to 1300–1400 BC, with
evidence found in Egypt and Mesopotamia. During this period, colloidal copper played a
prevalent role in the production of a misty red glass (Brill and Cahill 1988). Originating in 4th
century Rome, the history of the Lycurgus Cup is notable. The calyx of the cup has the ability to
shift its color from red to green depending on the incoming light source. This remarkable optical
phenomenon is credited to the presence of nano-sized silver and gold nanoparticles embedded
within the glass(Barber and Freestone 1990).

The pioneering method for producing silver metal nanoparticles was established through the
groundbreaking efforts of Michael Faraday. In 1857, Faraday hypothesized that the gold present
in solution (Cassius violet) existed in its ultimate isolated state, a discovery made in the 19th

5
century (Louis and Pluchery 2017). In 1974, Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology,
and the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles found application in various therapeutic,
collaborative, electronic, magnetic, and optical technologies of that era (Taniguchi 1974).

1.5 Classification of Nanoparticles

Classification of nanoparticles depended on their properties like morphology, range and physico-
chemical properties. These are carbon-based nanoparticles, metal based nanoparticles, polymeric
nanoparticles, ceramic nanoparticles, semi-conductor nanoparticles and lipid-based
nanoparticles.

Figure 1.4: Classification of nanoparticles

1.5.1 Carbon-based Nanoparticles

Carbon-based nanoparticles, which come in various forms such as fullerenes, single and
multiple-walled carbon nanotubes, are among the most unique nanomaterials. Nanofibers, carbon
nanoparticles, and other materials. Even while some of them are currently being produced in
large quantities, new techniques have just recently been able to significantly enhance the
synthesis and yield of carbon nanotubes(Murr et al. 2004).The special chemical, optical, and
structural characteristics of fullerenes are governed by their electronic structure. Fullerenes
shows enclosed, cage-like structures including twelve 5-member rings and 6-member rings of
unknown numbers in their defect-free form. (Pankratyev et al. 2018; Campbell et al. 1996). This
comprises the size of layers their length, number and chirality in the fullerene cage for
carbonaceous nanomaterials. (Nanotubes 2001; Bandow et al. 1998; Fecht, Brühne, and Gluche
2014).

Figure 1.5: Carbon based nanoparticles

The major application of fullerene is they are used for the drug transport of antibiotics, antiviral
drugs and anticancer and also useful for cancer treatment. On the other hand, fullerene-based

6
cosmetic products have long been used in human skincare(Benn, Westerhoff, and Herckes 2011;
Zhang, Isaacson, et al. 2012). Fullerenes possess a symmetrical closed-cage structure, with C60
fullerene being composed of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a structure resembling a soccer ball.
Other types of fullerenes, such as C70 and C540, also exist (Dresselhaus, Dresselhaus, and
Eklund 1993) The arrangement of carbon black nanoparticles forms tightly coupled spherical
particles, resembling the shape of grapes. Carbon quantum dots, sized at 10 nm, consist of quasi-
spherical carbon nanoparticles.

Carbon-based nanoparticles exhibit sp2 hybridization properties. These nanoparticles showcase

exceptional characteristics, including notable thermal and absorbent properties, optical attributes,
electron affinity, high electrical resistance, and crucial electrical conductivity (Mauter,
Elimelech, and technology 2008). Carbon-based nanoparticles find numerous applications,
serving as drug carriers in drug delivery and playing roles in various other fields. They are
utilized in photovoltaic devices, bioimaging, environmental sensing, and the detection of harmful
bacteria. Nano diamonds and carbon onions-based nanoparticles exhibit unique and essential
properties for drug delivery and tissue engineering, including low toxicity and biocompatibility
(Ahlawat et al. 2021).

1.5.2 Polymeric-based Nanoparticles

Polymeric nanomaterials are solid nanosized particles made of either synthetic or natural
polymers. Nanoparticles can be divided into two categories, Nanospheres are reservoir systems
that have a polymer membrane surrounding the drug-containing core. Nanocapsules are reservoir
systems that have a polymer membrane surrounding the drug's core. (Kolahalam et al. 2019a).

The drugs are either covalently coupled, spatially enclosed within the nanoparticles, or absorbed
to the constitutive polymers of the polymer matrix, depending on the technique of production.
Drug release can be controlled by polymeric nanoparticles either by matrix breakdown or
diffusion through the polymer matrix. They have been researched as prospective methods for
delivering drugs across biological barriers, including the blood-brain barrier, and for the
location-specific treatment of cancers.(Rawat et al. 2006).

7
1.5.3 Ceramic-based Nanoparticles
Metal and non-metallic components combine to form ceramics, which are most typically oxides,
phosphates, nitrides, and carbides. There are many different ceramic materials, including glass,
cement, and clay minerals, that are utilised in a variety of purposes(Balasubramanian,
Gurumurthy, and Balasubramanian 2017).These materials are frequently more resistant to heat,
electricity, and harsh chemical conditions than metals and polymers. Ceramics have a very brittle
mechanical behaviour and are extremely hard. Ceramic materials also display greater hardness,
superior heat and corrosion resistance, and electrical insulating qualities at the nanoscale(Xing-
Jie 2013). Fine ceramics, also referred to as "advanced ceramics," have a wide range of
sophisticated mechanical, chemical, magnetic, optical, electronic, electrical, and biological
capabilities. Tissue production is one of the main areas in which bioceramics is used. Structural
components (physical, mechanical, and chemical qualities). Biochemical components
(immobilised signals, diffusable signals, and live components) are the main factors taken to
optimise the biomaterials for tissue creation(Heimann and Lehmann 2015).

Figure 1.6: Ceramic based nanoparticles

1.5.4 Semiconductor-based Nanoparticles

Well-known semiconductors include gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon. Metal and
semiconductor nanoparticles can be immobilized as sensing elements on the working electrode
surface using a variety of processes, including as chemical covalent bonding, physical
adsorption, electro-polymerization with redox polymers, electrode placement, and others.
(Shipway, Katz, and Willner 2000). The crosslinking elements in a porous film made by multiple
layers of conductive nanoparticle-modified electrode could control the local microenvironment
of metal and semiconductor nanoparticles (Shipway and Willner 2001). The redesigned
electrodes have significant adsorption capabilities to most surfaces due to their porous nature. In
other words, substrates could gather on the electrode's surface. This type of customised electrode
may result in specialised and selective interactions with substrates in addition to the
accumulating effect(Shipway, Lahav, and Willner 2000).

8
The most recent developments in electrochemical sensors based on metal and semiconductor
nanoparticles are in which genosensors, which frequently use indirect analysis using metal and
semiconductors as electrochemical labels for amplification detection or hybridization research
instead of the infrequently used direct DNA determination based on the redox of bases or sugar
residues using nanoparticles. Enzyme- and protein-based sensors (Wang and Hu 2009).Metal and
semiconductor nanoparticles with electrocatalytic characteristics as electrochemical sensors for
tiny molecules like neurotransmitters. Metal ion, gas, and other inorganic substrate
electrochemical detection. The uses of semiconductor and metal nanoparticles in medicine
(Wang et al. 2006)

1.5.5 Lipid-based Nanoparticles

Liposomes are the first lipid-based nano-drug carrier. Sphere-shaped phospholipid bilayer
vesicles make up liposomes. These serve as a potential role in the fields of drug delivery and
cancer therapy which shows very low toxicity, ability to carry both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
molecules, and important for extending the half-life and regulating the release of drugs, which
enhances the effectiveness of the medication(Sinico et al. 2006). Because of their minimal toxic
exposure, inability to activate the immune system, ability to carry both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic medications, biological compatibility, and the ability to degrade liposomes are the
active ingredients for the carrier system. (Lila and Ishida 2017; Malam, Loizidou, and Seifalian
2009). When size is considered, it can be divided into three categories, multilaminar vesicles 0.5
to 10nm, Small unilamellar vesicles 10 to 100nm, Vesicles greater than 100 nm (large
unilamellar vesicles). The liposomes are frequently made to target particular areas (Patidar et al.
2010).

Figure 1.7: Lipid based nanoparticles

1.5.6 Metal-based Nanoparticles

Metal-based nanoparticles are created from metals to nanometric sizes either destructively or
constructively. All metals have the ability to synthesize into their nanoparticles. The commonly
used metals for nanoparticle synthesis are cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co) ,aluminium(Al) ,gold
(Au), iron (Fe),copper (Cu), lead (Pb),zinc (Zn), silver (Ag). Sizes between 10 and 100 nm, high

9
surface area to volume ratios, surface charge and density, pore size, crystalline and amorphous
structures, spherical and cylindrical shapes, color, and reactivity to external variables like
moisture, humidity, the heat produced, and the sunlight are just a few of the distinctive
characteristics of the nanoparticles (Klębowski et al. 2018). Metal-based nanoparticles such as
Au, Zn, Cu, ZnO, TiO2 and iron oxide for their distinctive crystalline form, excellent electrical,
optical, magnetic , mechanical and catalytic property are frequently used catalyst in bio-sensing,
bio-imaging and in other biomedical applications (Kaegi et al. 2011; Ballou et al. 2004). Ag NPs
have potential uses as cleaners and antibiotics(Schrand et al. 2010). Nanoparticles like Fe2O3
and Fe3O4 are utilized as MRI contrast agents and also serve in illness diagnosis, therapy,
monitoring, and drug delivery, ZnO and TiO2 NPs have been employed in sunscreens and
cosmetics, Cu and CeO2 NPs are used as catalysts in vehicles(Nohynek et al. 2007; Qiao, Yang,
and Gao 2009; Valsamakis and Flytzani-Stephanopoulos 2011).

Figure 1.8: Metal based nanoparticles

1.6 Introduction to Nanocomposites

Nanocomposites is a solid material made from a few stages where one of the dimensions should
be in nanometre. Nanomaterials remembered for nanocomposites are nanoparticles, nanofibers
and Nano clays.

Figure: Types of nanocomposites

1.6.1 Metal Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNC)

This is multiphase substances made out of flexible metal inside it some nanosized supporting
material is embedded. Feature of metal matrix nanocomposites is greater malleability, sturdiness,
as well as modulus. They can be utilized in assortment of car or air craft agencies(Saxena et al.
2017).

10
1.6.2 Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites (CMNC)
These substances with at least I particular ceramic phases have been added purposefully, to
upgrade wear opposition as well as surface substance strength(Peigney et al. 2000). Unlike, the
fundamental detriment of ceramics has been their fragility as well as reduced strength moving
them away from increased modern advantages. Such constraint is skirted by improvement of
fired lattice nanocomposites. They incorporate matrix at the place of energy draining parts are
integrated into artistic framework to bring down weaknesses well as the strength to prevent
fracture(Siegel et al. 2001).

1.6.3 Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites (PMNC)

The nano systems inside polymer matrix nanocomposites are normally known as Nano fillers
and named: one dimensional-straight, For example carbon based nanotubes; second dimensional
layered, for example silver nanoparticles(Dang et al. 2012).

Because of collaboration among the polymer network as well as Nano filler at atomic scale
impact of attraction among these composites is noticed. Qualities of polymer matrix
nanocomposites such as : enhanced thermal sustainability, enhanced mechanical features (greater
scraped spot obstruction) as well as reduced gas permeability(Mahesh, Joladarashi, and Kulkarni
2021).

1.7 Fabrication Technique for Nanoparticles Synthesis

For a specific use, metal-based nanoparticles are easily produced and/or chemically altered. The
processes utilised to create distinct nanoparticles are divided into two groups, top-down and
bottom-up(Biswas et al. 2012). The top-down method, as suggested by its name, begins with a
bulk material, or the top, that has been reduced to the nanoscale using grinding or ball milling.
While this is simple to achieve for bulk nano composites and nanograined materials, it produces
a wide size distribution, non-uniform particle geometries, and contains more contaminants.
Contrarily, bottom-up methods employ a variety of methods to construct a nanoparticle from
unprocessed chemicals and physical surroundings to a final, fully functional product. Although
time-consuming, this method allows to control of the chemical output and consistent yield
particle forms, sizes, and geometries with some defects(Biswas et al. 2012).Example of
fabrication technique including atomic layer deposition,colloidal methods or sol-gel

11
nanofabrication(Haggui et al. 2012). Some commonly used methods for nanomaterial synthesis
are;

Figure 1.9: Schematic diagram of synthesis methods of Nanoparticles.

1.7.1 Top-Down Method

Among the most renowned manufacturing approaches for metal nanoparticles is the top-down
method. This involves reducing the material to create nanoparticles. Various techniques fall
under the umbrella of the top-down method, including machining, sputtering, nanolithography,
laser ablation, and pyrolysis. These methods are commonly employed for the preparation of
nanoparticles.

1.7.2 Mechanical Milling

A top-down process results in the production of nanoparticles by mechanical attrition. When
energy is applied to coarse-grained material to cause a reduction in particle size, nanoparticles
are created in a mechanical device that is commonly known as a mill. The energy imparted to the
sample during collisions between the milling medium is the underlying principle of size
reduction in mechanical attrition devices. A suitable medium and powder charge are placed in a
high energy mill during mechanical milling. Their primary goals are to resize the particles and
combine them with new phases. In order to view how the metallic ball transforms the powder
particles into nanosized ones, an electron microscope is used (Zhang 2004).

For production of nanoparticles on large scale mechanical milling process is very economical.
Their kinetics depend on energy transferred by the balls to the powder during milling. And it is
controlled by different parameters such as type of mill being used, milling speed, temperature
given during milling, time duration, powder given to milling chamber, size and distribution of
balls(Ullah, Ali, and Abd Hamid 2014).

12
 Figure 1.10: Schematic Representation of high energy ball milling

1.7.3 Laser Ablation

LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) ablation use laser to
vaporize materials. By laser ablating a solid target that is present in a gaseous or liquid
environment, nanoparticles can be produced, and these particles can then be collected as
nanopowder or a colloidal solution. In contrast to other approaches, it is a simple, quick, and
basic way for creating nanoparticles because it doesn't involve a lengthy response time or a
multi-step process. Because it does not require hazardous chemicals to create NPs, this
technology is both safe for use in laboratories and environmentally beneficial (Ahmed et al.
2016).

When beam of laser focused on solid-targeted material surface in ambient media that is liquid or
gas. When beam falls the temperature of spot increases and it vaporize the targeted material.
Collosion occur due to temperature increase and theses collisions among evaporated specie and
molecules in surroundings lead to the formation of plasma structure. These structures depend on
ambient media, target material, pressure and laser condition(Semaltianos 2010).

Figure 1.11:Synthesis of NPs by laser ablation

1.7.4 Bottom-Up
This represents an alternative approach to nanoparticle synthesis, involving the assembly of
atoms constituting the material to form nanoparticles. Diverse bottom-up techniques, such as
pyrolysis, sol-gel, chemical vapor deposition, spinning, and biosynthesis, are employed in this
process.

1.7.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition

Chemical vapour deposition is a vacuum deposition technique used to create solid materials with
excellent quality and performance. In order to create thin films, the procedure is frequently
employed in the semiconductor sector. The chemical reaction of gaseous precursors at a heated
substrate yields a fully dense deposit. Chemical vapour deposition used to produce high purity
and high performance solid material (Sun et al. 2021).

13
 Figure 1.12: Representation of chemical synthesis of NPs by chemical vapour deposition

A reaction chamber is used for this approach in this chamber reacting gases are introduce and
these gases react with the substrate and decompose on the surface of substrate to form a film of
nanomaterials. The prescribed flow rate of a mixture of reacting gases is introduced into this
reaction chamber. This gas flows towards the substrate, where the reactant is absorbed and
undergoes chemical reaction, leading to the formation of a thin coating of nanomaterials on the
substrate's surface. Some by-products are also forms during this reaction. These by-products are
evacuated from the reaction chamber. To remove by-products a carrier gas flow is
maintained.Substrate surface temperature, deposition time, pressure and type of surface is
selected careful to avoid undesired reactions in chamber(Dinata et al. 2018).

1.7.6 Sol-Gel Method

The bottom-up strategy is used in the chemical process known as the sol-gel method. A sol is a
colloidal phase in which the size of the particles is so small that gravitational force does not
apply. Surface charges and van Waals forces are the only things present. A sol is a form of
colloid in which liquid is suspended by solid particles. These particles are tiny.

When the solvent from the sol evaporate a semi-rigid mass left behind that is called Gel. When
solvent evaporate the ions or particles left behind begin to join together to form a network which
ultimately form gel (Bokov et al. 2021).

Figure 1.13: Representation of sol-gel method for NPs synthesis

In order to get gel like properties significant amount of liquid need to be removed and this can be
accomplished by sedimentation process or centrifugal process. The remaining liquid is removed
by drying process and after this process we get dried gel. For this a thermal treatment is often
necessary.This may enhance the mechanical properties of structure stability. The dried gel than
grinded to get fine powder and after that further process is done by sifting. After that we will get
the final product. The finished product is used to create powder, molded into a suitable container
with the necessary shape, or deposited on the substrate to create film.

14
This process is very cheap and low-temperature technique that governed the chemical
composition of product. By using this technique small quantities of dopants can also be added in
the sol(Parashar, Shukla, and Singh 2020).

1.7.7 Co-Precipitation Method

Precipitation is the phenomenon where soluble substances undergo settling to form a precipitate
under specific conditions (Patnaik 2004).

In many instances, nucleation from a solution takes place when the concentration of the material
surpasses the level of super-saturation. As the material diffuses along its surface, nucleation
advances, ultimately leading to the formation of nanoparticles. To achieve uniform nanoparticles
throughout the growth process, it is essential to slow down nucleation. Precipitation encompasses
various methods, including co-precipitation, microemulsion/reverse microemulsion, etc. The co-
precipitation method offers a convenient means for the efficient generation of nanoparticles
(Samrot et al. 2017).

Figure 1.14: Co-precipitation method for NPs synthesis

1.7.8 Properties
Depending on the nature of nanomaterials, multiple processes are used to synthesize them. In a
broad sense the most common ways to create nanomaterials are “top down” and “bottom up”.
There are three different approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials are physical method,
Chemical method and Biological method:(Sarkar 2018).

Previously nanoparticles were synthesized chemically that have many unfavourable effects that
are associated with because of the chemical presence on the surface that are toxic to human
health. There is a need of an alternate to physical and chemical ways which is eco-friendly. Than
biological method are discovered that uses microorganisms and are eco-friendly and impart no
toxic effect to environment and human health(Kolahalam et al. 2019a).

Biological method uses enzymes, microorganisms, fungus, plants and their extracts.
Nanoparticles are synthesized by using this method also called green synthesis as it utilizes
plants and their extracts. Development of this process for the synthesis of nanoparticles of

15
various metal and metal oxide by plant extract lead to the development of new and important
branch in nanotechnology. Nanoparticles of various metals and metal oxides are synthesized and
have a vast range of application in diverse fields of life(Aruna and Mukasyan 2008).

1.7.9 Biological Method

Nanoparticles could be synthesized by physical and chemical method but due to some drawbacks
and damage caused by these process to the environment there is a pressing need to develop a
technique that is eco-friendly and impart to bad effect to our environment. Than a new technique
developed called green nanotechnology minimizes the risk of environment and human health
issues (Iravani et al. 2014).

Nowadays green synthesis also called biological synthesis has attracted the immense attention of
scientist and researchers. And its importance has been emphasized globally as it has advantages
over the chemical techniques that were intense, using toxic chemicals and low productivity.
Green synthesis is encouraged as it gives cost effective products, clean and eco-friendly
environment, and biocompatible synthesis of NPs. Green synthesis utilizes microbes, fungi and
plant extracts to synthesize nanoparticles (Pantidos, Horsfall, and Nanotechnology 2014).

Mechanism of biological synthesis of nanoparticles is same as that of chemical method but this
process use microorganisms. Plant tissues and enzymes present in microorganisms as reducing
agent instead of toxic chemicals. When these microorganisms or bacteria are mixed with metal
salts, enzymes convert them into nanoparticles(Narayanan and Sakthivel 2010).

1.8 Characterization of Nanomaterials

Synthesized nanomaterials can be characterized by using different techniques to analyze
physico-chemical properties which determine composition, shape, size morphology, surface area
as well as distribution, surface chemistry, stability, topography and roughness. Some of the
common techniques are enlisted below:

1.9 Metal Nanomaterials as Antimicrobial Agent

Metal-based inorganic nanoparticles are the most widely used and provide a potent barrier to the
emergence of antibiotic resistance (Slavin et al. 2017). Metal-based nanoparticles can be

16
characterized using a variety of techniques. These methods provide helpful information on their
shape, physicochemical qualities, and electrical features, all of which are crucial for
comprehending their in vivo activity. Some of the most crucial features of nanoparticles include
their dimension, form, abrasion, and energy stored on the surface.(Wang, Hu, and Shao 2017).
Some specific traits of bacteria help us to understand how they function when in touch with
metal nanoparticles. The distinctions between the cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria is crucial since the primary toxicological effect that antimicrobial agents have on
bacteria happens when they come into direct contact with the cell surface. Bacteria and other
microbes act as a threat to humans since they are the source of many infections and illnesses
linked to pathogens each year (Vos et al. 2017). A biomedical devices with antimicrobial metal
nanostructures in the pharmaceutical and academic worlds because they provide a promising
microbicides tactic against these highly drug-resistant diseases.(Jiang et al. 2018)

Three types of antimicrobial nanomaterials can be distinguished: those that are naturally
antimicrobial, those that act as carriers for the agents, and those that combine the properties of
both. Despite the fact that metal nanostructures have made great strides over the past ten years, a
comprehensive analysis of this hot topic in research that covers the applications of microbial
nanomaterials is still lacking. Numerous research examined metals in nanoforms, including Zn,
Se, Co, Ag, Ni, and Pb with unique characters that determined their applications in agricultural
field, food industry, medicine, health care, as a photo-catalyst, an Electro-catalytic and a
biosensor(Sharma et al. 2019; Abdelghany et al. 2018; Ahghari, Soltaninejad, and Maleki
2020a).

Figure 1.15: Antimicrobial categories of nanomaterials

Other than material chemistry, the mechanism for action of NMs as antibacterial agents is
significantly associated with the NM's physical characteristics, such as its shape, size, solubility,
agglomeration, and surface charge.Moreover, it has been shown that how the shape of NPs are
effective for their antibacterial actions(Raza et al. 2016). The smallest, spherical particles have
the greatest ability to kill germs. Small NPs (less than 30 nm) have a higher surface area to

17
volume ratio, which increases their tendency of penetrating bacterial cell walls(Seil and Webster
2012).

Nanomaterials including metal and metal oxide NPs, carbon NPs, and other nano-metallic
nanostructures have showed strong antimicrobial effects due to their unique physico-chemical
properties, high surface-volume ratio (Crisan et al. 2021; Rasheed et al. 2019; Pachaiappan et al.
2021). Materials that kill bacteria or inhibit their growth often without being hazardous to the
tissue around them are necessary for antimicrobial activity(Jadhav et al. 2018). Due to effective
antibacterial activity of metal nanomaterials particularly against Gram-positive bacteria
(Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), materials functionalized
with silver nanoparticles (Ni) have recently received attention(Crisan et al. 2021).

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced as a result of the interaction of NPs with bacteria,
which interact with the bacterial cell wall to damage the cell membrane and prevent the cell from
proliferating further. Bacteria will therefore inevitably die as a result of internal cellular
components leaking out(Pachaiappan et al. 2021; Ren et al. 2020). Additionally,
nanoarchitecture designs were used to create structures for clinical diagnosis, drug delivery,
gene delivery, and clinical diagnostic in addition to sensors(Karthik et al. 2021).

The functional systems that resemble living organisms can be built using nanoarchitectonics
techniques (Ariga and Fakhrullin 2021; Ariga and Jia 2020). Recently, industrial waste has
resulted in toxic and hazardous wastes that pollute the water supply, which slowly changes the
climate on a worldwide scale(Filiz 2020).

1.10 Metal Nanomaterials as Anti-Cancer Agent

Cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide. Different forms of cancer can be treated with a
variety of medication groups. The progression of pharmaceuticals at the nanoscale level is

currently receiving a lot of interest from researchers in an effort to improve their target
specificity and decrease their concentrations (Muhammad and Guo 2014). A promising and
expanding science, nanotechnology encompasses numerous subdisciplines, including
nanomaterials, nanostructures, and nanoparticles. Due to their size, shape, and potential
effectiveness, these materials have become more well-known in science. In the crucial topic of

18
nanomedicines, cancer and malignant cells are treated using various kinds of nanoparticles (Xu
et al. 2022).

The creation of nanoparticles that target biological pathways has become extremely popular due
to nanodrugs' greater efficacy and lack of side effects as compared to existing commercial cancer
drugs.(Wong et al. 2006). A various kind of cancer can be treated with a variety of therapies. The
most often used treatment to control various types of cancer is chemotherapy in conjunction with
cytotoxic drugs. However, these therapeutic strategies have a history of serious side effects,
particularly MDR (multidrug resistance)(Gottesman, Fojo, and Bates 2002). Chemotherapy,
whether used alone or in conjunction with radiation therapy or cytotoxic drug therapy, which has
a number of unfavourable side effects(Komarov et al. 1999).

Figure 1.16: Nanotechnology based tools for cancer

Natural substances that have been extracted from medicinal plants are thought to have great
compact for the discovery of new anticancer medications. In the treatment of a number of
chronic illnesses, including cancer, the use of nanoparticles enhances the compatibility and
bioavailability of natural products. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), which are among the metallic
nanoparticles, are a preferred for treating disease because of their particular interaction with and
disruption of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. By encouraging the production of reactive
oxygen species and inhibiting ATP synthesis, AgNPs impair mitochondrial function and cause
DNA damage(Cai et al. 2004).

For the creation of novel medical applications, nanotechnology is one of the most well-known
and promising topics. Unfortunately, there aren't many nano-based items being employed in
medical applications right now. Due of their quick responses, metallic nanoparticles have
received the majority of attention from researchers to date. Due to the unique physical and
chemical characteristics of metallic nanoparticles and their quantum size, a variety of intriguing
biomedical applications have been developed. The most widely utilised metallic nanoparticles
are zinc oxide, copper oxide, iron oxide, aluminium oxide, gold and silver. The most significant,
ions used in the green synthesis of nanoparticles from medicinal plants and their constituents are
silver and gold(Rao et al. 2016).

19
The effective carrier capabilities of NPs have increased their utility in the treatment of cancer.
Cancer can be treated with NPs through passive or active mechanisms. The enhanced
permeability and retention (EPR) effect is used in a passive process. Cancerous tissue has leaky
vasculature, which makes it easy for NPs to diffuse there and kill cells(Danhier, Feron, and Préat
2010). There are a few negative impacts of drug delivery via passive mechanisms. There can be
no strictly targeted drug delivery due to the leaky vasculature present in both inflammatory tissue
and malignant cells. Targeting the medicine through active mechanisms can minimize the
negative effects this causes. The NPs are functionalized and aimed towards the malignant cell
during an active process. It is possible to improve delivery of NPs to the intended malignant cells
rather than healthy cells by binding biomolecules or a ligand as a receptor. Metal oxide NPs are
employed experimentally to directly destroy tumour cells in vitro and in animals in anticancer
therapy research(Vinardell and Mitjans 2015).

1.11 Nickel Nanimaterials

As one of the main transitional elements and an important player in numerous sectors, nickel
must broaden the range of applications it may serve, including those at the nanoscale. However,
special properties of nickel NPs as stability and electron-transfer efficiency, biosensor electro-
catalysis, anti-inflammatory property, drugs delivery, environmental compatibility, catalytic
effect, and excellent capacitance properties make them elite but till now not all benefits of Ni-
NPs discovered (Hashem et al. 2021; Elbahnasawy et al. 2021; Sing et al. 2017). Pathogenic
micro-organism frequently caused infectious diseases which are very hazardous to human health.
The nano -technology based treatment that can control and reduce the growth and reproduction
of hazardous bacteria required to develop antimicrobial material(Mao et al. 2021). The
nanomaterials show significant antimicrobial potential to fight pathogens(Liu et al. 2021).

Figure 1.17: Nanoparticle formation and biological effects, including anticancer

properties

Nanomaterials for their unique and essential features have become major research focus
worldwide (Crisan et al. 2021). Because of high reactivity and eco-friendly they are used to

20
catalyze a variety of organic reactions such as reduction of aldehydes and ketones, hydrogenation
of olefins, chemoselective oxidative coupling of thiols, synthesis of stillbenes from alcohol via
Wittig-type olefination, and alkylation of methyl ketone(Alonso, Riente, and Yus 2008). They
also aid in the breakdown of ammonia and other inorganic processes(Li et al. 2005).One of their
more recent uses is in the fabrication of carbon nanotubes (CNTs)(Li et al. 2006). They also have
uses in the environment for the adsorption of dangerous dye and inorganic pollutants, and as a
result, they are essential to maintaining the environment's purity(Pandian, Palanivel, and
Dhananasekaran 2015). They are employed in the biomedical field because of their effective
antibacterial and anti-inflammatory abilities(Angajala and Radhakrishnan 2014). The alteration
in shape of these cells following treatment with Ni NPs demonstrates their cytotoxicity towards
malignant cells(Chen et al. 2013). Ni NPs that have been capped with biomolecules like glucose
are far more solderability, and as a result, they are used as biosensors and heat nonmediators for
malignant hyperthermia(Vaseem et al. 2013).

The fabrication of NPs by physical and chemical processes has some drawbacks, including
complexity (many phases), high cost, environmental demage, and the use of hazardous organic
compounds. Therefore, there is a huge need to create new, inexpensive, eco-friendly production
techniques for NPs. Natural biomolecules or microbes, along with plant extract as a reducing
agent, have been used in a variety of ways by nature to create micro- and nanoscale inorganic
compounds. A form of bottom-up approach, the major reaction occurring in the green synthesis
of NPs is reduction/oxidation. There are three fundamental prerequisites for the biosynthesis of
NPs, among others.

(i) Proper choice of a solvent

(ii) Selection of an eco-friendly reducing agent
(iii) Choice of non-toxic NP stabilizing agent

Therefore, by selecting the appropriate solvent, the biosynthesis of surfactant and reductant
results in NPs with regulated shape and no hazardous environmental pollutants(Singh,
Manikandan, and Kumaraguru 2011). Commonly, plant extracts from various plant parts are
employed as reducing agents in the plant-mediated synthesis of Ni NPs, but in rare instances, the
complete plant is grown on a metal substrate or a specific plant component is immersed in a
metal solution in place of the extract. Here, metal ions are reduced in place, and because porous

21
plant parts serve as biotemplates, their form can also be manipulated(Kar and Ray 2014).
Glucose, sucrose, or plant secretions are examples of naturally occurring biomolecules that may
also function well as stabilising and reducing agents and are thus employed in the fabrication of
Ni NPs(Dutta and Dolui 2011). A single-step production method for NPs called biosynthesis
produces stable NPs with various shapes. In contrast to the biosynthesis of NPs based on
microbes, the rate of production is quick. Secondary metabolites such as flavones, pyrones,
terpenoids, amides, aldehyde and carboxylic acids generated from plant extracts are shown to be
responsible for the reduction of metal salts into their respective NPs by infrared spectroscopy.
For the synthesis of Ni NPs, various plant components, including leaves and roots, are
utilised(Mittal, Chisti, and Banerjee 2013).

The basic features of the magnetic nanoparticles, generated from materials including nickel,
cobalt, and iron, lead them to multiply quickly. Microelectronics, catalysis, information storage,
photo-catalysis, multilayer ceramic capacitors, magnetic materials, high-density recording media,
and nanoelectronics are just a few of the applications that nickel nanoparticles have the potential
to be used in.(Tabrizi et al. 2009). Magnetic nanoparticles can be created using a variety of
methods. Some of these include the sonochemical, sol-gel, electro-chemical deposition, laser
ablation, low-pressure spray pyrolysis, polyol, gas phase spark discharge technique, and
electrochemical discharge machining, aerosol route method(Djurfeldt et al. 2010).

1.12 Applications of Nanomaterials

In comparison to bulk materials, nanoparticles exhibit enhanced properties in support of some
particular characteristics such, shape, distribution, and size. Physicochemical characteristics that
distinguish nanoparticles from their bulk materials include increased surface to volume ratio,
amplified electric and thermal conductivities, decreased melting point, and optical properties.
Magnetic and electric properties of NPs are controlled by modifying their physicochemical
features, such as shifting their size, changing their form, and altering their surface chemistry.
Nanomedicines using nanoparticles are beneficial for preventing wounds, reducing pain,
diagnosing illnesses, and improving a person's health. The current era of nanomedicines is
particularly fruitful for cancer detection, gene delivery, therapeutic potential and drug delivery
(Bratovcic and Engineering 2019).

22
Nanoparticles are now thought of as nano-antibiotics due to their antibacterial properties. As
nanoparticles have been incorporated into numerous industries, including the textile, chemical,
cosmetic, and food industries, they are considered for a green and eco-friendly method of
production(Sharma et al. 2018).

Figure 1.18: Applications of metals nanomaterials

1.12.1 Pharmaceuticals
Different macro-microscopic species, including plants, fungi, bacteria, microalgae, and seaweeds
are responsible for the biological synthesis of nanoparticles. The diverse endemic diseases have
been successfully controlled by the biosynthesized nanomaterials with minimum side effects. In
the synthesis of nanoparticles non-biological (physical and chemical) methods are used, which
causes serious hazardous problems and high toxicity in living organisms (Sharma et al. 2015).

The biological synthesis of metallic nanoparticles is low cost and environment friendly. Many
greener nanoparticles including silver, cobalt, gold, copper, zinc oxide, palladium, platinum and
magnetite are effectively synthesized using plants. The plant mediated nanoparticles are used as
a treatment for a number of diseases including hepatitis, cancer, malaria, HIV and other acute
diseases(Kuppusamy et al. 2016). Nanomaterials are accused to improve bioavailability, drug
safety and therapeutic efficacy in the pharmaceutical industry. They are used to intend different
medications toward a certain part of the body. Some nanoparticles cause serious effects on
human health. These include copper oxides, titanium dioxide, and other nanomaterials that cause
liver, skin, and lung damage, among other issues with human health (Bratovcic and Engineering
2019).

1.12.2 Food and Agriculture

Food demand is rising today due to a growing population, and food safety is an issue. One of the
most cutting-edge technologies in the chain of the food and agricultural industries is nanoscience
as nanoformulations for crop enhancement, crop protection for disease detection, Nano devices
for plant genetic engineering, plant disease diagnostics, etc., nanomaterials can be used in the
agri-food sectors. In the field of study, the application in agriculture, particularly for the

23
production and protection of plants, is understudied(Jain, Ranjan, Dasgupta, and Ramalingam
2018).

Nanomaterials have the potential to improve seed germination and growth, disease diagnosis,
pesticide/herbicide residue detection, and plant protection. Future agricultural output and the
usage of nanomaterials in agriculture (Jain, Ranjan, Dasgupta, Ramalingam, et al. 2018). It is
possible to enhance consumer health and safety, product shelf life and stability, bioavailability,
environmental sustainability, processing and packaging effectiveness, and real-time monitoring
by creating a variety of nano delivery systems, detection tools, nanoscale modifications of bulk
or surface properties, fabrication of wide-range bionanosensors, and biodegradable
nanoplatforms. Exposure to nanoparticles might raise the risk and be detrimental to consumers,
the environment, and other people. (Chen, Seiber, and Hotze 2014).

1.12.3 Textile
The textile industry uses nanotechnology thoroughly, and there are a tremendous number of
nanotextiles in the industry today, including numerous consumer goods that include
nanoparticles (Jatoi et al. 2021). With the inclusion of nanomaterials, nanotextiles are recognized
as standard textiles. Various functioning, such as flame retardancy, self-cleaning, dirt repellency,
water repellency, UV radiation safeguarding, or antibacterial property, are offered by these
sophisticated fabrics(Mejía et al. 2017). The potential applications of textile materials in several
industries are being improved through nanocoatings and nanofinishings. Nanomaterials have a
greater potential to provide various functionalities in textiles due to their larger surface area to
volume ratio and nanoscale dimensions. Inorganic nanoparticles like metal oxide, metal, and
nanoclay, core-shell nanoparticles, composite nanomaterials, hybrid nanomaterials, polymeric
nanomaterials, and carbon-based nanomaterials like graphene, carbon nanofibers, and carbon
nanotubes are the most common types of nanomaterials used in textile(Singh, Vajpayee, and
Ledwani 2020).

The antimicrobial function has recently evolved into a necessary requirement for all clothing,
medical textiles, and household products due to the increased awareness of hygiene and health.
Textiles can be used for a variety of purposes, such as decoration, defense, and aesthetics. Our

24
skin comes into constant, direct touch with the majority of materials (Kaphle et al. 2018). The
effect of hazardous and cancer-causing elements contained in textiles must therefore be carefully
taken into account. The category of engineered nanomaterials is among the most recent types of
potent compounds. The textile industry has recognised the value of engineered nanomaterials
because they can alter the physico-chemical qualities of textile materials and fibres to increase
water and stain resistance, improve materials' ability to absorb colours, and change the
wettability depending on surface(Harifi and Montazer 2017).

1.12.4 Cosmetics and Paints

Cosmetics include a wide variety of personal care items. Cosmetics can be divided into two
categories according to where on the body they are used as skin-care cosmetics (such as
cleansing agents and moisturising) and hair-care products (such as shampoos, conditioners, and
hair colourants) cosmetics for the face (such as foundation, lipstick, and mascara) nail care items
(such as nail polish remover) ultraviolet (UV) light-screening items (such as sunscreens)
fragrance products including cologne, deodorants, aftershaves, and perfumes (McINTYRE
2012). The primary substances utilised as nanoparticles in UV filters are zinc oxide (ZnO) and
titanium dioxide (TiO2). Although some natural substitutes are being explored, like those
produced by ivy plants, these two oxides' nanoparticles have been widely employed in
sunscreens to protect skin from UV rays(Holland 2009).

On the one hand, it provides alluring advantages with the added benefit of aesthetics, but on the
other, it might have unfavourable effects on the body's systems. This raises safety concerns and
health risks, especially given that when particles are shrunk down to the nanoscale, their known
properties may quickly change. There is also a paucity of knowledge on the toxicity of
nanoparticles (Mittapally et al. 2019).Because nanoparticles may have altered physicochemical
characteristics, information on such materials as well as cosmetics will include such features,
their biological interactions, and characterization of any relevant contaminants. With the use of
such precise and easily accessible information, health and safety professionals may better control
instances of contamination, allergies, or poisoning (Jeevanandam et al. 2018).The other issue is
the toxicological data of the nano-sized product, which can be discovered by evaluating the
cosmetic chemicals for systemic exposure (acute, chronic, and subchronic), irritation of the skin,

25
sensitivity to light, and photoallergy. The toxicological hazard of repeated use of particular
products or cumulative exposure to similar products. In addition, information on genotoxicity,
foetal toxicity, carcinogenicity assessment, and impairment to reproductive health will be
required(Burdock and Carabin 2019).

1.12.5 Water Purificataion

One of the most anticipated and advanced environmental uses of nanotechnology is water
cleanup and treatment. The removal and inactivation of pathogens, the adsorption of heavy
metals and other contaminants, and the conversion of harmful substances into less toxic
molecules are just a few of the ways that various nanomaterials might help purify water. For this
purpose, nanomaterials have been designed in a variety of forms, functionalized with active
chemicals, and integrated into a range of composites.(Shan et al. 2009).

Incorporating nanomaterials into nanostructured catalytic membranes can improve the treatment
of water. A healthy human existence depends on the proper treatment of wastewater, which is
contaminated by pathogenic bacteria, radionuclides, viruses, inorganic and organic substances,
and metal ions. This rush is being intensified by rising demands for clean water as a result of
prolonged droughts, population growth, and most recently precise health-based rules. One of the
most advanced environmental uses for nanomaterials may be water filtration. The typical process
for treating water involves adsorbing and/or photocatalyzing pollutants, reducing them using
nanoparticles (NPs), and bioremediating the affected areas. The process of converting a pollution
from gradually higher toxicity to low toxicity in water and soil is known as remediation(Mangun
et al. 2001).

Figure 1.17: Water contaminants

All of the heavy metal ions cannot be removed by conventional water treatment strategies like
reverse osmosis, bio-sand, distillation, filteration and coagulation-flocculation. As a result, it is
considered that stronger processes and membranes are needed for the purification of water.
Inorganic polluted water, papermaking wastewater, dye wastewater, greasy wastewater, and
pesticides wastewater may all be addressed using nanomaterials. Sorbents are commonly

26
employed as separation medium because they remove pollutants from contaminated water in the
simplest possible method(Lowry and Johnson 2004).

Chapter 2

2. Literature Review

27
2.1 Literature Review
(Kareem, Babu, and Lakshmi 2023) Presented their work on the employing an aqueous fruit
extract from the polyphenol-rich Terminelia Chebula, Ni nanoparticles were created. UV-VIS
information gives us the information about Ni's synthesis and mono-dispersed structure
nanoparticles these can be characterized by using FTIR, EDS, XRD, and TEM-EDS and FTIR
analysis showed the confirmation that alkaloids and tannies were applied to produce Ni
nanoparticles. TEM analysis confirmed the average size 15.6nm and spherical shape. In this
antibacterial, catalytic also anti-cancer properties of synthetic biological Ni NPS are observed.
The results showed that breakdown of Congo red by catalysis can found to be first order kinetics.

(Amutha et al. 2023) Investigate the structural, morphological, optics, and antibacterial
characteristics of the ferric (Fe) and nickel co-doped tin oxide (SnO2) nanoparticles are also
described and examined; methods utilised for this include UV-Visible spectroscopy, the
technique of X-ray diffraction, FTIR, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Nanoparticle
size of (SnO2) that is both pure and co-doped and SnO 2 crystallites(Hussein and Mohammed
2021) have tetragonal rutile structure. SEM analysis shows that pure and co-doped samples
having spherical structure and capsules with band gap 3.7eV and 3.53eV.Nutrient agar and agar
well diffusion technique are used for the determining of antibacterial properties of pure and co-
doped SnO2 nanoparticles were evaluated at 700 0C and various microorganisms that are gramme
positive and gram negative are also observed.

(Bouzekri et al. 2023) Used this method for the environment friendly generation of H. scorpia
leaf extract-induced silver-doped nickel and copper nanoparticles X-ray diffraction and Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) are two methods for characterising materials. while the
produced CuO, NiO, Ag-CuO NPs were determined by XRD. The antibacterial activity of the
investigated NPs exhibited limited activity against the analyzed yeast and moderate activity
against the investigated bacteria. In order to create highly desirable NPs for the ending of dyes
from aqueous sol and the defence against multidrug-resistant bacterial, green synthesis
techniques could be applied. However, with regard to this study, we intend to determine how
various NP combinations work in terms of improving their capacity to remove dyes and treat
multidrug-resistant microbes.

28
 (Wei, Abbaspour, and Tayebee 2023) Investigate the H3PW12O40, melem, and Ni nanoparticles
that are used to develop a photocatalyst known as melem@Ni-HPA, which is ternary. Using a
green laser in the air and favourable reaction conditions, chromeno [4,3-b]chromenes were
successfully and safely synthesised, produced photocatalyst exhibited a high photocatalytic
capability. According to data, this generate an effective photocatalyst as a superior environment
friendly substitute for chromenes. Preliminary studies showed the The co-catalytic influence of
HPA and Ni NPs as electron sinkers that promote and enable separation/migration of the
photogenerated electron/hole pairs led to synergistic effects, which improved photocatalytic
performance. In the final section, a preliminary MTT assay was used to assess melem@Ni-HPA
nanocomposite's in the vitro cellular cytotoxicity with the SKOV 3 people ovarian cancers cells
line. On the tested cell line, this nanocomposite seems to have a good inhibitory impact.

(Zhang et al. 2023) studied on a preferred technology for utilizing CO 2 is the dry reformation
of methane (DRM), which generates syngas for the synthesis of valuable chemicals and fuels. the
extreme temperature range required to turn on the little energy molecules (CH4 and CO2) and
stop charcoal formation. The successful synthesis of syngas using AC-based catalysts (Ni/AC,
Ni-La/AC) and lanthanum nickelate (LNO) is described in this study. . Compared to Ni/AC
catalysts, the inclusion of lanthanum produced a substantially higher reactant conversion (100%)
rate. Based on in situ DRIFTS and CO2-TPD results, the addition of La increases CO2 activation
via the formation of carbonates on La2O3, resulting in increased catalytic efficiency and
stability.

(Namvar et al. 2023) have presented their work on the Ni-Al2O3 catalyst for CO2 methanation
enhanced by erbium used to manufacture and characterization in multidisciplinary green
techniques. The morphological and the catalysts' catalytic activity, which is nickel aluminate
could be part influenced by the fabrication process. A stronger connection among the nickel and
aluminium oxide species was produced as a result of the addition of erbium, and this interaction
led to the formation of little crystallite pieces with a greater dispersion throughout the surface of
the catalyst. In the methanation of carbon dioxide, nickel-based alumina catalysts have better
lower temperatures efficiency. process for the erbium addition. According to the analysis the
25Ni-5Er-Al2O3 may be thought of as a fantastic intrinsic catalyst for hydrogenating carbon
dioxide and possesses a persistent and lasting catalytic capability.

29
(Li et al. 2023) worked on the chemical co-precipitation the procedure for synthesis and
structural control of magnetic NPs. Magnetised nanoparticles are commonly used in
biosynthesis, catalysis, electrical and microwave absorption materials, and environmental
remediation because of their significant specific surface area, strong magnetism, chemical
resistance, and exceptional biocompatibility. The basic preparation principles and the variables
influencing the structure, size, and microstructure of the magnetic nanomaterials produced by the
chemical coprecipitation method are described according to the various compositions. The
mechanisms of chemical precipitation to produce magnetic nanoparticles and the great number of
different process control are discussed.

(Singh, Gogoi, and Barman 2023) In this investigation, with the use of polysalicylaldehyde
Schiff base-M(II) complexes (M = Cu, Ni, and Co) as possible precursors, NiO, CuO, and
Co2O3 NPs with pronounced antibacterial activity were effectively synthesised. The 2-
aminophenol and polysalicyl-aldehyde condensation process was used to create
polysalicylaldehyde (PSA). The nanoparticles were created by thermally decomposing the
appropriate PSA Schiff base complexes. The produced nanoparticles had a high purity and a high
percentage of crystallinity, according to findings of characterization investigations. The
antibacterial capacity of the three nanomaterials against Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, and
Staphylococcus aureus was examined using the well diffusion technique and MIC assessment
were investigated. Compared to the original complex, all three nanoparticles demonstrated a
considerable antibacterial activity.

(Hashem et al. 2022)distinguishes that Ni nanoparticles can be synthesized by FTIR, UV-Vis,

TEM, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) are used to
enhance the antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer capabilities of Penicillium chrysogenum
that are contained in the starch from potatoes. The study showed that the fabrication of nano
capsules were built using potato starch and biosynthesized Ni NPS. In nanoscale, the
envelopment of Ni-NPs was confirmed. There was an extraordinary activity observation,
exhibited by bacteria with gram positive and gram negative characteristics, fungus with single
and multiple cells, shown by fabricated Ni-NPs@st. Further, these Ni-NPs@st have potential
antioxidant work and anticancer treatment with distinguished observation. This study

30
demonstrated the potential biological functions of Ni-NPs@st nanocapsules that could be used to
cure chronic infections.

(Amin et al. 2022)worked on stabilizing silver nanoparticles is crucial for enhancing the
antibacterial also sensing properties. The current study describes an efficient new method for
creating Ag NPs that have been 4-(phenylsulphonamido) benzoic acid (PSBA) functionalization
and activated by solar radiation. In this situation, PSBA serves as a reductant, a stabiliser, and a
source of Ni2+ binding sites during the synthesis of Ag NPs. XRD, FTIR, DLS, Zeta-potential
(ZP), , and cyclic voltammetry were employed to evaluate the Ag NPs' manufacturing,
processing, and detection. Using these nanoparticles, the selective detection of Ni2+ in the
aqueous solution also proved successful. metal ions from the alkaline and basic earth as well as
certain other heavy metal ions, were also examined. Due to a synergistic antibacterial impact, Ag
NPs@PSBA also showed increased anti-bacterial activity against numerous food-borne
pathogenic microorganisms.

(Sebastiammal et al. 2022) studied on the nanocrystalline Ni2+ doped hydroxyapatite nanoparticle
(HApNPs) is made by sol-gel technique which is depicted by XRD method. There are functional
groups such as O-H and O-P-O, evidenced by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. The shape of
particle as well as Ni2+ doping is shown by EDAX and FESEM. The test involved using the disc
diffusion technique including S. flexneri, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, and S. aureus.
The high amount of antifungal, antimicrobial, anticancer activity is seen in HApNPs doped with
Ni2+. The result showed its possible effectiveness in medical branch especially in orthopedics and
surgical puposes. Incorporating Ni2+ into HApNPs followed them a function as powerful
antioxidants. Antibacterial activity showed better results against G -ve germs than against G+ve
pathogens. Oidium caricae, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus niger all exhibited antifungal
activity.

(Kumari, Charan, and Kumar 2022)distinguishes that a technique of auto-combustion using

citrate gel used to create nanostructured zinc doped nickel chromites, Ni 1-xZnxCr2O4 which were
then studied using a variety of methods. The findings of XRD experiments showed that they are
in a crystalline state. The elemental analysis (EDS) investigation further verified the presence of
Ni, Zn, Cr, and O in the samples. The production of metal oxide bands and the existence of
spinel chromite structures were both indicated by FTIR spectra. The Ni-Zn chromite's optical

31
characteristics have been examined using a UV-Vis spectrometer, and it has also been discovered
that Ni chromites band gap energy is lower than that of Zn chromites. The basic emphasis of the
research was the photo-degradation of acid red and methylene blue on Ni-Zn chromite under UV
technique. Hela cell lines were used to test the Ni-Zn chromites created synthetically for their
biological activities for their anticancer properties.

(Qamar, Javed, and Shahid 2022) In the current study, chemical co-precipitation was used to
create Zinc oxide nanoparticles with transition metal (Fe, Cr, Ni, Co, and Mn) doping (TM-ZN
NPs). Researchers have looked into how TM mixing affects the microbial and photocatalytic
properties of ZnO (ZN) particles. The generated materials were characterized using significant
analytical techniques. The XRD examination ZN and TM-ZN NPs' wurtzite hexagonal structures
have been verified. Compared to ZN NPs, TM-ZN NPs demonstrated improved photocatalytic
and antibacterial actMnZN NPs, or Mn-doped ZnO nanoparticles in particular had the greatest
bactericidal efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The significant
decrease in the band-gap and e-h pairings' recombination is prevented The photocatalytic and
antimicrobial properties of the synthesised TM-ZN NPs may be linked to the induction of extra
energy levels below ZN's CB. A possible MB and bacterial mechanism for MnZN NPs has also
been suggested.

(Dadure et al. 2022) In the last two decades, nanotechnology has become a rapidly expanding
field of application. Wet chemical reduction, when only safe chemicals are utilised, avoids the
usage of reductive process to produce nanomaterials. Researchers who were concerned about the
environment recognized the possible risks posed by these processes and worked tirelessly to
develop an alternative, high-yield technology that was also environmentally friendly such is
decrease helped by biomass. The most recent advances in the emerging field of herb extract-
arbitrated aggregation of nickel-based nanoparticles such (NiO), [Ni (OH)2],, bi-metallic, and
nano-composites (between January 2018 to June 2020). Comprehensively discussed are many
reported bio-reductant, their likely modes of reduction, analysis methods, and various
pharmaceutical and non-pharmacological properties.

(Hassanin and Taha 2022) studied chia seed as a capping and drying agent, extraction was
employed. during sonication process to successfully synthesis β -Ni(OH) 2 nanocluster in an
aqueous media. The produced materials, The results indicate the presence of cluster-shaped

32
nanoparticles with an average particle size of 5.8 nm. The produced nanoparticles have a
hexagonal shape typical of the pure Theopharasite form of -Ni(OH), as evidenced by SEM, EDS,
and XRD studies. The presence of peaks for Ni2+, Ni-OH, O-H, C-C, C-O, and C=O in the XPS
data demonstrate that the -Ni(OH)2 nanocluster was successfully produced via biogenesis. The
in-vitro cytotoxic activity of the chia seed extract-produced -Ni (OH)2 nanocluster was
investigated using the MTT test, and the cytotoxicity of the -Ni(OH)2 nanocluster was evaluated
on the MCF7 cell line. The quantity of dead cells showed that dosage toxicity and concentration-
dependent exposure time were related.

(Haritha et al. 2022) In the current work, nickel oxide nanoparticles were made utilising
Averrhoa bilimbi fruit extract. Nickel nitrate is transformed into nickel oxide nanoparticles by
the bioactive substances found in fruits, such as tannins, flavonoids, and phenols. Nickel oxide
nanoparticles exhibit strong antimicrobial effectiveness against S. aureus and E. coli. The
produced sample's antidiabetic activity is examined, and it is discovered that it has an inhibitory
impact on the amylase enzyme. The cytotoxic effects of particles of nickel oxide are next
investigated in cultured human colorectal cancer cells (HCT-116), which have shown notable
anticancer activity with 55 gmL-1 at 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50). According to the
findings, nickel oxide nanoparticles may provide a secure potential for managing diabetes and
cancer and has a wide range of industrial and medical uses.

(Shnawa et al. 2022) This study examined the possible biological activities of a leaf extract from
the plant Ziziphus spina-christi L. employed in the manufacture of nickel oxide nanoparticles.
The hemocompatibility and protozoological, antioxidant and antibacterial properties of NiO-NPs
were studied. The outcome reveals that the NiO-NPs were crystalline at the nanoscale, contains
particles between 50 and 90 nm in size. High scolicidal action was demonstrated by the NiO-NPs
against Echinococcus granulosus. As the concentration of NiO-NPs rose, The affected
protoscoleces' vitality rapidly decreased. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were
effectively combated by the NiO-NPs' antibacterial activity. The Z. spina-christi L. leaf extract
demonstrated crucial biological features and was found to be an efficient Agent for decreasing
and capping NiO-NPs during their creation. Additionally, NiO-NPs exhibit hemocompatibility,
exhibit strong antioxidant activity, and are not harmful to erythrocytes.

33
(Gwon et al. 2022) using a modified CBD technique followed by thermal reduction, Si@NiO
nanoflowers were created in this study as a novel anticancer agent. According to the data, the
oxidants (Si@NiO nanoflowers) may help kill some cancer cells by producing ROS. The
primary causes of the killing of cancer cells could be direct contact between the nanoflowers
surface with the cancer cell membranes or the ROS species produced by the Ni (II) ions on the
nanoflowers surface. In this regard, both the high surface area and the positively charged metals
on the surface may play key roles in limiting the proliferation of cancer cells. The MCF-7 cells
strong anticancer activity and the MEF cells have good biocompatibility point to possible uses
for these cells in pharmaceutical development and cancer treatment. Research on nanoflowers
containing different metals is anticipated to increase the spectrum of therapeutic technology due
to their direct contact with cancer cells.

(Moghadam et al. 2022)studied the most prevalent infectious disease that affects humans is
thought to be dental decay. Acid production by Streptococcus mutants bacteria over time leads to
tooth decay and acid damage. Promising agents for antimicrobial and antiviral applications can
be thought of as nanomaterials with sufficient functionality, distinctive mechanical properties,
and non-bacterial resistance. This work used a straightforward, environmentally friendly process
to create nickel oxide nanoparticles between 2 and 16 nm in size that contain Stevia natural
sweetener. By using the broth dilution method, their varied concentrations were also tested on S.
mutans bacteria. The outcomes showed that this gram-positive coccus was effectively
bacteriostatically inhibited by these spherical NiO nanoparticles.

(Jasrotia et al. 2022)Sol-gel auto-combustion was used to create magnetic CoMg modified with
nickel nano photocatalyst. The produced magnetic NPs' XRD patterns did not reveal any distinct
phases. For the samples (S1) and (S3), which are both unaltered, FESEM confirmed the
development of agglomerated and spherical NPs. The particle size distribution was examined by
TEM, which revealed the development of rounded, aggregated NPs for the S1 specimen with an
average size of the particles of 32 nm. FTIR spectra have been employed to identify stretching
vibrations in the metal oxygen complexes at the intermediate regions. The produced nickel-
modified nano photocatalyst (S4) exhibits a 95 % maximum degrading efficiency. The S4
specimen had the biggest zone of inhibition against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, indicating that

34
synthesised nano photocatalyst is very effective against both Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa bacteria.

(Alburaih et al. 2022) In this research, using a two-step wet chemical process, a
W0.98Fe0.02O3@NiO@RGO (WFN@RGO) nanohybrid with excellent bactericidal and
photocatalytic properties was effectively created. The WFN@RGO nanohybrid and WFN
nanoparticles as-fabricated are evaluated to elimination of the E. coli (G) and S. aureus (G+)
pathogens as well as for the disinfection of methyl orange (MO) dye when exposed to sun light.
In comparison to WFN nanoparticles, the WFN@RGO nanohybrid showed strong bactericidal
activity and three times greater catalytic activity. NiO was found as a result of charge transfer
between WFN nanoparticles and RGO-sheets, a reduction in band gap energy, and the combined
actions of W0.98Fe0.02O3. Additionally, the WFN@RGO nanohybrid showed exceptional
catalytic stability after five cycles, we only noticed a 6.95% drop in degrading efficiency. Using
WFN@RGO nanohybrid, we also developed a potential photo degradation process for
eliminating MO dye.

(Elamin et al. 2022) Due to their lower chemical toxicity, phytoextracts have recently attracted
attention for the creation of nanoparticles all over the world. We synthesized Murraya koenigii
leaf extracts into Co-doped and NiO Nanoparticles of NiO to substitute synthetic bactericides.
Analytical techniques such as XRD, UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, and EDAX were used to characterize
the produced samples. The crystalline cubic arrangement of the greenly synthesized NiO and Co-
doped NiO nanoparticles is confirmed by XRD examination. A distinctive absorption peak at
348 nm was visible in NiO and Co-doped NiO nanoparticles. FTIR spectroscopy was used to
establish that the synthesised substances included the functional groups of biomolecules.
Through SEM analysis, it was discovered that the produced nanoparticles had a size range of 80–
250 nm.

(Nemera et al. 2022) studied a combination of NiO NPs@C-dots are a combination of carbon
dots and nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO NPs). In order to create NiO NPs, buddleja polystachya
Fresen leaf extract and Ni(NO3)2.6H2O were employed as precursors. The C-dots were made
using benzene-1,4-diamine and citric acid. The NiO NPs@C-dots' surface morphology was
examined using field emission scanning electron microscopy, which also revealed a sizable
surface area that is appropriate for the stated purpose. The X-ray diffraction findings showed the

35
cubic face wurtzite structure and crystalline nature of the NiO NPs. Investigations were
conducted into the antibacterial activities of substances created against strains of human
photogenic bacteria and the antibacterial capabilities of a composite made of NiO NPs@C-dots.
Both NiO NPs and NiO NPs@C-dots were shown to be equally efficient against all bacterial
strains. Both NiO@C-dots and NiO NPs seemed to have strong inhibitory effects.

(Sabouri, Akbari, et al. 2021) In this work, NiO-NPs were made using sol-gel techniques with
Arabic gum as a polymerization catalyst at various temperatures for calcination. Characterization
of generated nanoparticles involved the use of XRD, FESEM/EDX, TGA/DTA, FT-IR, UV-Vis,
UV-Vis, and VSM techniques. The XRD and FESEM tests verified their shape and crystallite
size. The acquired degradation percentage was around 80%, and the photocatalytic findings
confirmed NiO-NPs' function as a photocatalyst over the MB breakdown process when exposed
to UVA light. Additionally, this product's antibacterial efficacy was assessed against both gram-
positive and gram-negative microorganisms. Except for Bacillus subtilis bacterium, all of the
investigated bacteria exhibited a resistant behavior relative to NiO-NPs. NiO-NPs' cytotoxicity
was evaluated on cancerous U87MG cell lines and healthy CNs cell lines using the MTT test.

(Rahman et al. 2021) In this research, using a wet chemical technique, it was able to create
binary metal substituted nickel ferrite (Ni Cd 0.04Gd 0.04Fe 1.96O4, NCGF) and its nanocomposite
0.96

with (Marand, Almasi, and Marand 2021). The nanocomposite demonstrated superior
photocatalytic and antibacterial abilities. More specifically, the photocatalyst based on the
heterojunction of NCGF and r-GO deteriorated. The increased activity of the NCGF/r-GO
photocatalyst is blamed for preventing charge carrier mixing. produced by the inclusion of r-GO
in the matrix of the NCGF. Additionally, even after 5 cycles, the NCGF/r-GO photocatalyst
maintained 92% of its initial catalytic efficiency, demonstrating its increased stability and
excellent reusability. Additionally, the antibacterial abilities of the NCGF/r-GO sample were
superior to those of the pure NCGF sample against the pathogens S. aureus and E. coli.

(Marand, Almasi, and Marand 2021) In this study, nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) were
incorporated into chitosan-based films in order to create active nanocomposite films. The films
were created using the solvent casting process, while the NiONPs were created using the solution
combustion method. FE-SEM measurements supported the NiONPs uniformly dispersed at small
concentrations and the agglomeration at 9%. By adding 6% NiONPs, the Improvements were

36
made to the films' surface hydrophobicity, tensile strength, thermal properties, and water barrier
capabilities. Through absorbing 72% of methyl orange for 270 minutes when exposed to UV
radiation, nanocomposites' photocatalytic activity was demonstrated. The nanocomposite films
showed strong antimicrobial properties in tests against gram-positive (S. aureus) and gram-
negative (S. typhimurium) bacteria. In light of this, the chitosan-NiONPs nanocomposite films
might be used for active food packaging and photodecolorization.

(Liu, Ru, and Liu 2021) In this study, After CuO nanoparticles were hydrothermally produced by
the hydrothermal method, Ni-P/CuO composites with different Ni-P alloy loadings were created
by chemical plating. The in-situ growth of Ni-P on the surface of CuO creates a tight contact
between Ni-P and CuO. The photocatalytic activity of CuO for the degradation of antibiotics is
effectively increased by the Ni-P cocatalyst. With a 4 wt% Ni-P loading, CuO is 25 times less
photocatalytically active than Ni-P/CuO.

(Sabouri, Rangrazi, et al. 2021) This effort was done to create NiO-NPs utilising Salvia hispanica
L. (chia) seed extract as the capping agent since nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO-NPs) are of
great interest due to their physical and chemical properties. The created NiO-NPs' morphological
and physicochemical features were examined. The FESEM/PSA images show that oxygen and
nickel components are present in this product's structure, which is supported by the findings of
the EDAX investigation. The XRD pattern also had certain peaks that corresponded to the crystal
structure of NiO-NPs. The cytotoxicity influence of NiO-NPs was not observed to depend on
concentration, unlike the super-paramagnetic behavior that was seen in the results of the VSM
investigation. It may be advised the suitability of this product for many purposes, like illness
prevention and the elimination of leftover poisons, given its strong photocatalytic capacity and
low cytotoxic effects.

(Roudbari, Keramati, and Ghorbani 2021) In the current study, a new After undergoing
hydrothermal processing, the ZIF-8@SnO2@CoFe2O4 nanostructure's ability to bind Ni2+ and
kill microbes was assessed. The effectiveness of ZIF-8@SnO2@CoFe2O4 for Ni(II) adsorption
was evaluated as a function of pH, dose, time, various Ni2+ levels, and temperatures. The
outcomes demonstrate the effectiveness of ZIF-8@SnO2@CoFe2O4 for Ni2+ adsorption from a
water-based media. The sorption dynamics were described using the pseudo-first order model.
Thermodynamic analysis showed that nickel sorption onto ZIF-8@SnO2@CoFe2O4 was an

37
endothermic and physisorption reaction. Results from the MBC, Disc Diffusion, and MIC
techniques demonstrated that ZIF-8@SnO2@CoFe2O4 produced excellent biocidal activity for
particular bacterial varieties. Additionally, disc diffusion test for ZIF-8@SnO2@CoFe2O4
against Escherichia coli recorded the greatest radius of the inhibitory zone as 18 mm.

(Radhi et al. 2021) Recently, various biomedical science applications have given significant
attention to the GBNs made of graphene have antimicrobial properties. Because of their capacity
to compromise the bacterial cell membrane stability and generate oxygen radicals in reaction,
GBNs have been accepted as antimicrobial nanomaterials and demonstrate remarkable
antibacterial characteristics (ROS). The numerous GBN antibacterial mechanisms were explored
in this review as well as the underlying factors that affect GBN activity, includes bacterial cell
shape, the quantity and size of GBN flakes, the presence of functional groups, exposure to
electromagnetic radiation, and the impact of electrical conductivity. In order to give a thorough
understanding of the antibacterial properties of GBNs in dentistry and to give suggestions for
more research, this study highlighted the potential uses for GBNs in medical therapy. These
applications encompassed adhesive adhesives for orthodontic therapy, dental implant covering,
composite resin and cement for restorative operations, and denture fabrication employing GBNs
in combination with acrylic resin.

(Shivaraj et al. 2021) Zn1-xNixO nanorods have been created using the wet chemical
precipitation process, where x is one of 0.0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, or 0.2. By using (XRD) to
characterize the physical and optical features of samples of Ni-doped ZnO, it was discovered that
the In a hexagonal wurtzite crystal structure, Ni-doped ZnO crystallites had a second phase
(NiO) that could be observed in XRD studies with increasing accuracy. There are nanoparticles
that resemble hexagonal rods, according to the findings of scanning and transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) and electron microscopy, respectively. Band edge emission, violet, blue,
green, orange, and red emission were all seen in the photoluminescence (PL) spectra at normal
temperature; however, the level of emission enhanced with Ni2+ion doping. In accordance with
antibacterial studies, Ni-doped ZnO nanorods are more effective in killing gram-positive
(Escherichia coli) and gram-negative (Enterococcus faecalis) bacteria than pure ZnO nanorods.

(Rasheed et al. 2021) NiFe2O4/MXene heterostructures were created using a low-cost

ultrasonication method. In comparison to individual NiFe 2O4 (NiFe) or MXene, The

38
heterostructures as they were created demonstrated remarkable photodegradation capability and
antimicrobial activity. The NiFe nanoparticles (NPs) significantly increased the size of the
heterostructure's surface and prevented the re-stacking of MXene flakes. The sheet-sheet
coupling that was successfully created offered a wonderful prospect for effective wastewater
treatment and antibacterial activity. When compared to MXene and NiFe, the new photocatalyst
NiFe/MXene heterostructures have been shown to dramatically improve the photocatalytic
destruction of organic contaminants. Additionally, the heterostructure elements exhibited
exceptional anti-microbial action against gram-negative E-coli bacteria, and kinetic analyses of
the degradation process revealed the methylene blue dye's process. We hope that this work will
be viewed by young scientists working on water desalination as an important scientific
contribution.

(Kalita et al. 2021) Camellia sinensis (tea) plant extract was utilized in this study to create nickel
oxide nanoparticles, reducing the toxicity of nickel's direct use (NiO NPs). The UV absorption
peak serve as evidence that NiO NPs were successfully synthesized. NiO nanoparticles that
resemble well-defined nanosheets are being formed. As measured in the UV-Vis and
photoluminescence spectra, accordingly, absorbency and strength have been interrelated with
wavelength using the bivariate Gaussian model in this case. Considering the observed results
from Markov chain Monte Carlo simulations, an enhanced generalised Bayesian estimate has
been made, along along a 95% greatest probability density range, of the greatest absorption or
wavelength of emission seen at the highest absorbance or intensity. Furthermore, both gram-
positive and gram-negative bacteria strains are effectively inhibited by NiO NPs' antibacterial
activity. The NiO nanoparticles that were created using tea leaf extract may offer a natural
defence over bacterial infections.

(Shoeb et al. 2021) Here, we described a simple, economical method for creating nanocomposite
made of Gr@NiCu NCs and investigated its use in antibacterial and supercapacitor properties.
The NiCu-based electrode's graphene sheets demonstrated a substantial specific surface area and
supported oxygen group-adorned conductive networks, which improved charged capacity for
storage as a whole. In addition, hydrophilic oxygen groups of chemically Gr@NiCu have
decreased graphene oxide. NCs make it simple for the electrolyte to enter the pores of the
electrode. According to electrochemical research. The antibiotic medication ampicillin, The

39
ATCC BAA 1708, P. aeroginosa (ATCC 27853), and S. Mutans (MTCC SM 497) strains, as
well as S. Aureus, E. coli, and MRSA, were used to investigate the antibacterial efficacy of
produced Gr@NiCu NCs. This potent antibacterial activity is brought on by the cooperative
apoptosis of Cu2+ and bacteriostatic action of Ni2+ ions with graphene sheet (increase ROS
production), formed by Gr@NiCu NCs.

(Wang et al. 2021) This effort demonstrated the chemical synthesis of silver sulphide, nickel
titanate, and chitosan nanocomposites and their characterisation using various technologies. The
rhombohedral and monoclinic phases of nickel titanate and silver sulphide nanoparticles,
respectively, were confirmed by XRD data The breakdown of metronidazole was accomplished
using a photocatalytic approach using the silver sulfide/nickel titanate/chitosan nanocomposites.
The 40-minute reaction between silver sulphide, nickel titanate, and chitosan successfully
completed the photo-degradation of metronidazole. When compared to other catalysts, it was
found that the silver sulfide/nickel titanate/chitosan combination showed improved photo-
degradation and hydrogen generation rates. The nanocomposites of silver sulphide, nickel
titanate, and chitosan showed antibacterial action and inhibited bacterial growth.

(Pipattanachat et al. 2021) Medical device biofilm buildup can lead to difficulties. The
development of a nickel-titanium (NiTi) alloy covered with graphene oxide/silver nanoparticles
(GO/AgNPs) has proved successful. The goal of this experiment (EPD) was to evaluate the anti-
bacterial and anti-biofilm properties of a NiTi alloy covered with GO/AgNPs produced by
electrophoretic deposition. GO/AgNPs were coated on NiTi alloy using various coating times.
Assays utilising crystal violet and colony counting were used to measure the mass of the
Streptococcus the size of the mutans biofilm's population of live cells, respectively. The findings
demonstrated that although the amount of total biofilm mass and its surface roughness did not
significantly correlate, it did rise with coating time. As a result, the S. mutans biofilm is
protected from bacteria by the GO/AgNPs on NiTi alloy. But, the overall biofilm mass
production is unaffected by the increasing surface roughness. Modifying the NiTi alloy surface
with GO/AgNPs is a viable coating to mitigate the impacts of biofilm development.

(Christy, Suresh, and Nehru 2021) In this study, we describe how nickel oxide nanoparticles
(NiO) are made utilising simple using glucose and malic acid as fuel as well as nickel nitrate as
an oxidizer in a solution combustion process have improved photocatalytic activity and

40
antibacterial properties. NiO nanostructures were found to have cubic crystal structures and to be
growing in sheets-like morphologies through experiments using both high-resolution
transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and powder X-ray diffraction. Additionally,
antibacterial activity tests were carried out using a variety of bacterial strains, including
Klebsiella pneumonia, Acineto bacterbaumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Citrobacter
freundii, Escherichia coli, and Vibrio cholerae. This improved antibacterial activity is made
possible by these processes. Additional experiments verified the photocatalytic activity of NiO
nanostructures as a method of decomposing the methyl orange dye when exposed to observable
light.

(Praveena, Mohammed, and Technology 2021) Sol- The production of gel auto combustion
nanoparticles of polycrystalline spinel nickel ferrite. The cubic spinel structure of the produced
NiFe2O4 nanoparticles was backed up by XRD investigation. The FESEM study of the produced
nanoparticles reveals that they have a spherical form. UV-Vis spectroscopy and
photoluminescence spectra were used to analyse the optical characteristics of NiFe 2O4
nanoparticles. The effectiveness of nickel ferrite particles as a bactericidal agent was evaluated
using agar well diffusion experiments. The short-term in vitro cytotoxicity of nickel ferrite
nanoparticles was examined using Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites cells. NiFe 2O4 prevents the
growth of Klebsiella pneumonia and Bacillus subtilis.

(Shah et al. 2021) In this study, solvothermal synthesis was used to quickly and cheaply create
nickel-doped cupric oxide nanoparticles (NixCu1xO) with varied doping. The CTAB-capped Ni-
doped CuO NPs are highly toxic to Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and
Escherichia coli while performing moderately against Candida albicans. With regard to S. aureus
or K. pneumoniae infections the particle dimensions, interface form, elemental compositions, and
surface bio-functionality of catalytic nanoparticles have all been found to have a significant
impact on the enhanced dose-dependent antibacterial action. Additionally, an excessive number
of reactive oxygen species are produced Ni-dopant establishes the main antibacterial mechanism
for bacterial cell death in bacterial culture media. All things considered, these inorganic
(NixCu1xO) in addition to various electronic and photonic medical diagnostics, NPs containing
antimicrobial cationic surfactant (CTAB) provide advantages to use as a functionalized
disinfection nanoagent to treat bacteria in the medical field.

41
(Alahmari et al. 2021) Here, we present the electrospinning fabrication of Ni-Co ferrite with a Cd
substitution and a negligibly small quantity of Nd as a dopant is used to create nanofibers (NFs).
Ni0.5Co0.5-xCdxFe1.78Nd0.02O4 (exponent 0.25), In order to comprehend the composition and
surface shape of NFs, energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), transmission and scanning electron
microscopes (TEM), and X-ray powder pattern (XRD) techniques were used. The biological
effects of the of Ni 0.5 Co 0.5-xCdxFe 1.78 Nd 0.02 O4 (x ≤ 0.26) NFs on bacterial and malignant cells
have been studied. We discovered the Ni 0.5 Co -xCdxFe
0.5 1.78 Nd 0.02 O4 (x ≤ 0.25) NFs had an
inhibitory effect on human colorectal cancer cells (HEK-293) as well as on two different
microorganisms (E. coli and S. aureus, respectively). Last but not the least, this is the first report
on the electrospinning process used to create Cd-substituted Co-Ni ferrite nanofibers by anti-
bacterial and anti-cancer properties.

(Saiganesh et al. 2021) The utilizing Sesbania grandiflora broth for doping, we created NiO
nanoparticles and modified their optical characteristics for use with antimicrobial products.
Investigations on lanthanum doping using NiO were extensive. Through the use of UV-Vis
diffuse reflectance spectra (UV-DRS) analysis and X-ray diffraction analysis, the produced
nanomaterials' optical characteristics were examined. Additionally, The antimicrobial activity of
NiO and La-doped NiO nanoparticles against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains
such Escherichia coli and Bacillus sublitis was investigated using the zone of inhibition
technique. The data collected demonstrated that the improved compound NiOLa-04
outperformed the other chemicals created. To the best of our understanding, this is the first work
on the phytosynthetic production of rare-earth ion Lanthanum (La3+)-doped Nickel Oxide (NiO)
nanoparticles and its anti-microbial studies.

(Uddin et al. 2021) The development of green nanomaterial production is facilitated by its
simplicity, low cost, sustainability and low toxicity. Phytochemically abundant Berberis
balochistanica stem (BBS) extract was employed in the current investigation. to create nickel
oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) utilizing a green biogenic approach. The NiNO3 (green) was
successfully reduced and stabilised into NiONPs by these phytochemicals (greenish gray). SEM,
X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy,
identification of the -OH group and Ni-O production, and Using UV-visible spectroscopy, prove
the existence of BBS-NiONPs (showed rhombohedral agglomerated shape). To figure out their

42
useful biological applications, BBS-NiONPs were subjected to a variety of in vitro bioactivities.
The overall high antioxidant activity of BBS extract makes it simple, affordable, and safe to
produce NiONPs through green biosynthesis. BBS-NiONPs' biochemical potential can be helpful
in a variety of biomedical and agricultural domains.

(Huang et al. 2021) In recent study, an liquid extraction for F. officinalis was used in the green
production of nickel nanoparticles. Utilizing conventional chemical methods the nanoparticles
were examined using techniques such as UV-Visible, FT-IR, XRD, FE-SEM, and EDX. The
shape of the nanoparticles was spherical. NiNPs@F. officinalis had a size in the 16.85 to 49.04
nm range, which is well recognised to be a suitable size for artificial nanoparticles. The most
effective antioxidant defence against DPPH were demonstrated by the NiNPs@F. officinalis.
NiNPs@F. officinalis and BHT had IC50s of 145 and 107 g/mL against DPPH free radicals,
respectively. In the presence of NiNPs@F. officinalis, A dose-dependent decrease in a malignant
ovarian cell line's viability was observed for the cell lines PA-1, Caov-3, SW-626, and SK-OV-3,
NiNPs@F. Officinalis showed IC50 values of 375, 225, 246, and 279 g/mL, respectively.
Following the clinical trial, NiNPs@F. officinalis, which contains an aqueous extract of Fumaria
officinalis leaves, can be used as an effective medication to treat ovarian cancer in people.

(UR et al. 2021) In this study, we have described the environmentally friendly synthesis of NiO
NPs utilising combustion of solutions technique and Areca catechu leaf extract. The
development of well-crystalline, hexagonal NiO NPs with a very small crystallite size of 5.63 nm
was demonstrated by X-ray diffractogram. Additionally, the SEM and TEM analyses'
morphological findings showed size and shape of the nanostructures as-prepared. Additionally,
the as-prepared NiO NPs' antidiabetic activity was tested using yeast cells' glucose absorption
and the inhibition of -amylase, both of which showed a sizable amount of antidiabetic activity.
The synthesised substance also demonstrated potential anticancer action against human lung
cancer cell lines. As antidiabetic and anticancer medicines, the chemical components of the areca
plant have demonstrated a variety of pharmacological activities.

(Rehman et al. 2021) The current study offers a hydrothermal technique for effective design of
new nanoparticle microspheres (MCs). In order to create the Co 0.5 Ni 0.5 GaxFe2xO4 (0.0 x 1.0)
MCs, the elements cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe), and gallium (Ga) were engineered (Ga).
The anti-proliferative impact of MCs was examined using human colorectal carcinoma cells

43
(HCT-116), human cervical cancer cells (HeLa), and a non-cancerous cell line human embryonic
kidney cells (HEK-293). After 72 hours of treatment, MCs induced a dose-dependent reduction
of HCT-116 and HeLa cell growth and proliferation. In contrast, HEK-293 cells showed no
cytotoxic effects. With a survival rate of 20% and pronounced development after treated with
MCs x = 1.0, the anti-fungal effect was determined by colony forming units analysis and SEM.
These results imply that freshly created microspheres may have pharmacological significance for
the treatment of infectious illnesses and cancer.

(Zhang et al. 2021) This study used an aqueous extract from Calendula officinalis leaves to
successfully produce nickel nanoparticles (NiONPs) in an aqueous medium. Different methods
were used to characterize the synthesized NiONPs. Additionally, the NiONPs' homogeneous
spherical morphology were seen in SEM pictures. In this study, esophageal carcinoma cell lines
were exposed to NiONPs, which demonstrated excellent cell killing and anti-cancer activities. In
this study, esophageal carcinoma cell lines were exposed to NiONPs, which demonstrated
excellent cell killing and anti-cancer activities. The cell line OE 33 got the best NiONP anti-
esophageal cancer activity out of all the tested cell lines. Using the DPPH test, the antioxidant
capacity of NiONPs was examined. According to the findings, NiONPs may be administered as a
chemotherapeutic supplement or medication to deal with esophageal cancer.

(Sani et al. 2021) A new study on Callistemon viminalis (C. viminalis) flower extracts are used
as an inexpensive, environmentally friendly to create biogenic nickel oxide (NiO-NPs). NiO-NPs
were annealed at temperatures of 310, 420, and 500 °C. NiO-NPs' element size shrank as
annealing temperatures rose. Excellent inhibitory potential was demonstrated by the anti-cancer
effects and the anti-leishmanial effectiveness on Leishmania tropica promastigotes (KMH-23), a
significant antibacterial action was seen against Proteus vulgaris and Klebsiella pneumonia. The
inhibitory potential of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and
glucosidase was comparable to those of positive control medications. Antioxidant activity that
were moderate were seen. When NiO-NPs were administered at greater doses (1000 g/mL),
hemolysis (30%) was seen. In conclusion, NiO-NPs showed a dual-purpose character that might
be investigated for many uses for biomedicine.

(Faisal et al. 2021) In the current study, As a reducing and capping agent, curcuma longa root
extracts were employed to biosynthesize copper oxide, nickel oxide, and copper/nickel hybrid

44
NPs. The availability of different functional groups and biomolecules, including carbohydrates,
proteins, polysaccharides, etc., is demonstrated by FTIR spectroscopy. The copper/nickel hybrid
NPs had a good dispersion, a spherical shape, and uniform size, as seen by SEM images, whereas
the synthesised CuO-NPs and NiO-NPs showed polyhedral morphologies that were homogenous
and uniform. For the Cu + Ni hybrids, P. aeuroginosa (28 1.22) and P. vulgaris (25 1.73) had the
best antibacterial activity of biosynthesized NPs. Additionally, NPs were used to encapsulate the
medicines, and action was seen. The study's findings led to the conclusion that NPs could be
employed as an alternative to antibacterial agents.

(Hussein and Mohammed 2021) This study used grape juice extract used as a reducing agent to
demonstrate the green synthesis of NiONPs. The developed pure NiONPs were bioactive
functional groups have been demonstrated to cap the grape extract from aqueous solution.
employing a variety of procedures that were used to characterize the produced NiONPs.
Biogenic NiONPs have also demonstrated a wide range of biological activity in vitro. The
biological characteristics of small NPs are frequently expressed by these small NPs. Biogenic
NiONPs show promise as anti-bacterial and anti-cancer agents. Additionally, phytosynthesis is
the way to go in the creation of NPs that can be utilized to treat ailments nano theranostically
without the usage of dangerous chemicals. Green NiONPs are also active in a variety of fields
that require thorough investigation in biomedicine.

(Sana et al. 2021) Nickel Oxide NPs (NiO-NPs), which exhibit enzyme inhibiting, cytotoxic,
anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, and other properties, are among them and are
purchased for their various catalytic and therapeutic applications. Despite the fact that a number
of chemically dependent methods were used to create nanoparticles, their significant drawbacks
most notably their toxicity and higher cost have increased the usage of safer, more eco-friendly,
economical, and synthetic methods. The present review's objective is to demonstrate The most
current changes in the application of green produced nickel for its antioxidant, cytotoxic, and
antibacterial properties. Nickle oxide nanoparticles and their environmentally friendly
manufacturing methods have been addressed in this work.

(Tombuloglu et al. 2021) In Cobalt-nickel nano-ferrite nanocomposites (Co 0.5 Ni 0.5 NbxFe2-xO4
(x ≤ 0.1)) with niobium as a replacement were created in the current work by mixing iron oxide
(Fe2O8), niobium (Nb), nickel, and cobalt (Co). Using the MTT assay, we looked at how

45
nanocomposites (Co 0.5 Ni 0.5 NbxFe2-xO4 (x ≤ 0.1) affected cancer cells carcinoma cells, HCT-
116, the effects of nanocomposites were observed on healthy and non-cancerous cells (human
embryonic kidney cells, HEK-293). Co0.5 Ni0.5 NbxFe2-xO4 (x ≤ 0.1) therapy administered after
48 hours resulted in depends on dose reduction of proliferation and development of cancer cells.
On the other hand, the normal cells showed no cytotoxic effects (HEK-293). These findings
show that synthetic nanocomposites of Co 0.5 Ni 0.5 NbxFe2-xO4 (x ≤ 0.1) specifically Colon
cancer cells are the target and cancer cell death is caused. Cobalt-nickel nano-ferrite with a
niobium substitution was made.

(Jeong et al. 2021)In this study, a photo deposition technique was used to a nickel and titanium
dioxide composite (Ni/TiO2), and Escherichia coli was used to test its antibacterial capabilities
(E. coli). The effectiveness of various photo deposition circumstances, TiO 2 crystalline shape,
and electron donors are present or not, on antibacterial performance were examined to maximize
Ni/TiO2 synthesis (i.e., methanol). The antibacterial efficiency of the enhanced 2 wt% Ni/TiO 2
was 3.75 log within 7 min, which is more than 10-fold more than that of pristine TiO2 (2.50 log).
Using an electrospray/thermal compression approach, Ni/TiO2 was immobilized on a steel mesh
and its antimicrobial effectiveness was then tested against E. coli, the MS2 bacteriophage virus
(MS2 phage), and a common lung pathogen based on this best weight ratio (Legionella
thermalis, L. thermalis). The study's findings make it easier to successfully use immobilized
Ni/TiO2 mesh in water filtration uses.

(Ghazal et al. 2021) Nickel nanoparticles have been used as a novel strategy for cleaning up the
environment's current pollution. At the nanoscale scale, metal oxides are a cheap material that
are capable of taking part in photocatalytic and decontamination processes, especially in light of
the crucial role that metal nanoparticles play in identification and ending of contaminants from
the environment. In this research, we used a sol-gel technique to create copper-doped nickel
oxide nanoparticles (Cu-doped NiO-NPs), and we next looked into their cytotoxicity and
photocatalytic capabilities. The nanoparticles have a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure.
Furthermore, the results of the FESEM analysis have shown that these nanoparticles have a good
dispersion. MTT test was utilised to establish the cytotoxicity of nanoparticles in suppressing the
cancer CT26 cells to complete the characterization process.

46
(Almessiere et al. 2021) Sol-gel techniques were used to create Nanospinel Ferrites (NSFs) of Co
0.5 Ni 0.5 Nd 0.02 Fe 1.98 O4 (CoNiNdFO) with and without plant extracts. The effects of NSFs
on human colorectal carcinoma cells (HCT-116) and cervical tumour cells (HeLa) were assessed
using the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and 4',6-
diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining procedures. Cardamom and moringa extract
treatments for NSFs reduced the viability of cancer cells. MTT assay results showed that NSF
treatment of HCT-116 cells and HeLa cells resulted in a positive reduction cancer survival.
Colon cancer cells were noticeably reduced in the NSFs treated with and without cardamom and
moringa extracts. The colony-forming unit (CFU) method was used to assess the anti-
staphylococcal activity of NSFs, and the results showed that S. aureus growth was inhibited. The
microbiological the dangers of nanoparticles to S. aureus was demonstrated by observation that
the green synthesis-produced nanoparticles reduced the number of cancer cells.

(Srihasam et al. 2020) In the current study, biogenic preparation utilizing stevia leaf broth was
used to create economically feasible NiO nanoparticles and their antioxidant activity in vitro and
antibacterial capabilities were assessed. SEM and TEM morphological examinations revealed
that the size of produced nanoparticles ranged from 20 to 50 nm. FTIR analysis was used to
investigate the function of the biological moieties that decrease and cap the nanoparticles. Gram-
negative bacteria, which coexists with gram-positive bacteria and fungus, were severely inhibited
by the produced nanoparticles. Additionally, it effectively reduces,-diphenyl picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) to carry out an in-vitro action. In light of this, it can be said that the efficient and simple
green synthesis method utilised to create NiO nanoparticles can produce antimicrobial agents
that are potentially effective against microorganisms that are resistant to a variety of drugs.

(Ahmed and Hashim 2020) PVA/NiO/SiC nano-composites have been prepared, and their
dielectric characteristics have been examined for antibacterial applications. At normal
temperature, the A.C electrical characteristics of nano-composites were investigated. The
experimental findings demonstrated that demonstrated the (PVA-NiO-SiC) nano-composites'
dielectric constant and dielectric loss reduced as the frequency of the applied electric field
improved. Increasingly often, the electrical conductivity of A.C. rises. SiC nanoparticle
concentrations rose along with the (PVA-NiO) nano-composites' dielectric constant, dielectric
loss, and A.C electrical conductivity. The use of (PVA-NiO-SiC) nano-composites for

47
antibacterial defence against gram-positive (S. aureus) and gram-negative bacteria were tested
(E. coli). The outcomes demonstrated that when SiC nanoparticle concentrations grew, the
inhibitory zone expanded.

(Raju et al. 2020)For the eradication of disease-causing organisms, novel materials with effective
antibacterial and larvicidal techniques are urgently needed. In the current study, fabrication of
nickel metal organic frameworks (Ni-MOFs) with diverse biological activities is the main
emphasis. According to the experimental findings, Ni-MOFs were highly effective antibacterial
agents against the extended spectrum lactamase strain and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Aedes
aegypti was used as the viral vector in larvicidal tests, which showed that Ni-MOF had
outstanding larvicidal activity. Ni-MOFs were shown to be non-toxic at lower doses, according
to a safety evaluation research employing the in vivo model hj\, but toxic at the highest dose. Ni-
MOFs' biocompatibility makes them a suitable nanocarrier for the environmentally friendly
suppression of bacterial infection and mosquito populations.

(Mostafa, Mwafy, and Management 2020) To increase the antibacterial activity against
numerous pathogens, Nickel oxide (NiO) at the nanoscale has been successfully produced using
pulsed laser ablation in liquid media. The nanosecond infrared Nd:YAG laser was used to carry
out this technique. Its structural analysis using X-ray diffraction revealed that the face centre
cubic structure of NiO was formed. The transmission electron microscope's morphological
analysis of it revealed that their particle sizes varied when the laser fluency used altered. The
produced materials were then tested against various bacterial strains for their antibacterial
properties (Streptococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans). It
demonstrated that NiO nanoparticle efficiency was increased by reducing their particle size and
that they are more effective against gram-negative strains than gram-positive strains. This
antibacterial activity's results was examined and supported by the MIC approach.

(Gnanamozhi et al. 2020) In this resaerch, the synergistic effects regarding the antibacterial
activity of ZnO nanoparticles against a range of bacteria and the photocatalytic dye degradation
effectiveness towards methylene blue (MB) and reactive red 120 (RR120), Ni concentration and
an ultrasonic-assisted method were investigated. The Nickel (Ni) doped ZnO nanoparticles'
absence of any additional impurity peaks is confirmed by XRD, which also reveals that Ni
doping affects lattice structure of Zn. The ultrasonic assisted co-precipitation approach used to

48
create the hexagonal rod and sheet like nanostructures in the Ni doped ZnO nanoparticles is
confirmed by a SEM micrograph. The photocatalytic degradation of MB and RR120 is
accelerated by the Ni doped ZnO nanomaterial’s, which also regulate charge carriers combining
once more. According to the antibacterial results, the sample with 5% Ni replaced is efficient in
thwarting bacterial contamination

(Sadhukhan et al. 2020) Eco-friendly reduced graphene oxide/nickel oxide nanocomposites

(RGO/NiO NCs) were produced in a microwave using in-situ co-precipitation and the
hydrothermal mode. As a reducing cum stabilising agent, a non-toxic aqueous phytoextract was
utilised. The methylene blue dye solution and NCs were exposed to visible light in order to
perform the photo-degradation activity. As compared to pure NiO NPs (65%) and RGO,
experimental results show that the NCs have increased photo-catalytic activity to the photo-
degradation of MB (93%) (Negligible). The electron-hole pair (e-h+) Impact of combination is
effectively delayed in nano-composites due to the surface electronic charge transfer from NiO
nanoparticles (NPs) to RGO, which also slightly accelerates the breakdown rate of the dye
solution. In contrast to its ingredient, the antimicrobial effectiveness of the NCs demonstrates
excellent potential in a range of cultural mediums.

(Jena et al. 2020) An innovative electrophoretic deposition (EPD)-produced An innovative

ternary composite coating with enhanced anticorrosive and antibacterial properties is comprised
of graphene oxide (GO), chitosan, and silver on Cu-Ni Alloy. The ideal GO concentration (0.5
g/l of chitosan and 1 mM silver nitrate) produced a two order decrease in corrosion electricity
density and a corrosion protection efficiency of 99 % in electrochemical testing. According to
the findings, GO slows down by prolonging the diversion path, the diffusion of corrosive ions to
the substrate is slowed down, and there is less electron transfer among the electrolyte and the
metal specimen. The mechanical interlocking and crack-free compact film were made possible
by the amide bond among the GO and chitosan matrix. The ternary composite exhibits strong
antibacterial activity, which has prospective uses in the marine environment, according to
microbiological investigation.

(Ezhilarasi et al. 2020) In this research, the hot plate combustion method is used to synthesise
nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiO NPs) utilizing Solanum trilobatum with nickel nitrate serving as
the starter and leaf extract as the fuel. A cylindrical and rod-like surface form was verified by

49
morphological investigations, and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM)
was used to calculate the mean particle size. In order to establish the synthesis of the NiO with
high purity phase, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra were utilised. Diffuse reflectance
spectroscopy (DRS) and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy were employed to investigate the
optical properties. The cytotoxic activity, photocatalytic degradation (PCD), and antibacterial
efficacy were against diverse gram positive and gram negative bacterial pathogens. The NiO
nanoparticles that were created performed better against A549 cells and effectively combatted
gram positive pathogens than gram negative infections. Additionally, it demonstrated
photocatalytic activity by efficiently degrading 4-Chlorophenol using UV light, as is abundantly
seen from TOC experimentation outcomes.

(Kannan et al. 2020) The biosynthesis of nickel oxide (NiO) in a nanoscale sample was aided by
the use of citrus fruit juice and a microwave. The produced NiO sample was examined using a
variety of spectroscopic methods. The X-ray diffractogram showed that NiO NPs with a very
small crystallite size of 20 nm had formed a spinel that is cubic and well-crystalline structure. In
contrast to the physical features established by SEM and TEM, which revealed a spherical form
of produced nanomaterials, FTIR revealed Ni O and smaller C H and H O H distinctive
functional groups. EDAX was used to discover the NiO nanoparticles' elemental compositions in
accordance with the specifications. Peaks in the emission of light were seen at 351, 441, 480, and
531 nm.

(Dewangan et al. 2020) This paper describes a novel, straightforward hydrothermal process for
producing graphene oxide/NiO/Starch composites (GO/NiO/Starch). The composite substances
(TGA-DTA) were fully characterised using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy
dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy (XPS), and
thermo gravimetric investigation. The antibacterial properties of NiO and graphene oxide
covered with starch were also assessed against Staphylococcus aureus using the well diffusion
technique. The findings show that Staphylococcus aureus has a substantial resistance to the
antimicrobial properties of the compound GO/NiO/Starch material.

(Elayakumar et al. 2020) The article describes the various REE cerium-doped nickel ferrite
nanoparticle concentrations made using the sol-gel technique. Using the XRD, SEM/TEM, and

50
VSM methodologies, accordingly, the structural, morphological, and magnetic characteristics are
identified. The single phase with spinel character is visible in the XRD pattern. SEM/TEM
analysis is used to confirm the calculated particle size. The prepared sample's magnetic
characteristics is investigated using the VSM technique. When the amount of cerium ions present
is changed, it is also analysed that the saturation coercivity and magnetism of the ferrite
specimens drop. Additionallyis, done to determine whether nickel ferrite nanoparticles have any
antimicrobial effects on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

(Iqbal et al. 2020) Chemical processes used to create nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) result
in hazardous byproducts, producing NiONPs using fresh Rhamnus triquetra leaf broth (RT. The
creation of RT-NiONPs is suggested by a change in colour of the remedy from brown to greenish
black, were used to examine the synthesis and RT-NiONPs were also put through a variety of in
vitro biological activities, which indicated distinct biosafe and biocompatibility potentials when
used with macrophages and erythrocytes. HUH7 and HepG2 liver cancer cell lines were targets
of potential anticancer activity. Leishmanial promastigotes and amastigotes were used to
determine the potential for cytotoxicity. RT-NiONPs have the ability to effectively combat a
variety of bacterial and fungal species. The current work demonstrated in vivo research using a
variety of animal models to identify possible leads for novel therapeutics for a number of chronic
conditions.

(Joshy et al. 2020) This article describes the effective green production of NiO nanoparticles
using onion extract using quercetin. One of the main red onion phytochemicals in onion extract
for establishment of NiO, NPs is quercetin. The comparative investigation proves that onion
extraction functions similarly to quercetin solution as a capping and reducing agent for the
creation of NiO NPs. To test the sensitivity of several bacterial strains antibacterial activity was
conducted using the disc diffusion method. the development of hybrid nickel ferrite (NFO)
nanoparticles for anti-cancer medication delivery. The nickel ferrite nanoparticles were described
using the XRD and TEM investigations. The benefit of self-assembled hybrid nanoparticles with
magnetic nanoparticles is that they may be used for drug delivery and treatment. In this regard,
zidovudine-containing nickel ferrite reinforced hybrid nanoparticles are a difficult platform that
may function in a pH sensitive way, enabling the delivery of intracellular anticancer medicines to

51
particular tumour locations. As a result, it has a significant, extensive, and all-encompassing
effect on cancer therapy.

(Ahghari, Soltaninejad, and Maleki 2020b) This process uses a nickel-metal salt as a precursor.
By using a cup-plate agar diffusion method and OD readings, the antibacterial properties of
NMMNPs are investigated for S. aureus and E. coli bacteria. By using the colony method, it was
confirmed that the NMMNPs rendered the E. coli and S. aureus bacteria inert. The S. aureus
bacteria exhibits a higher zone of inhibition than the E. coli bacterium, and the NMMNPs shown
a strong sensitivity against both of these pathogens. S. aureus and E. coli show a higher zone of
inhibition in the S. aureus bacterium than in the E. coli bacterium. A sample of Ni-NPs can be
used as an alternative to mirrors made of harmful elements like Hg because of its low toxicity.
As a result, the NMMNPs can be used in domestic applications like dentistry, surgery, laser
tools, photonics, and space telescopes due to the described qualities and the synergistic effect of
these features.

(Abbaszadeh et al. 2020) In the current investigation, nickel oxide nanoparticles

(NiO@Glu/TSC) The anti-cancer effects of compounds functionalized with glutamic acid and
combined with thiosemicarbazide are evaluated. First, co-condensation process was used to
create the NiO@Glu/TSC nanomaterial. By the in vitro toxicity approach, NiO@Glu/TSC
nanoparticles showed considerable development suppression of MCF-7 cells, but no discernible
harm in HEK293 cells were doubly stained with Fluorescein Isothiocyanate (FITC)-Annexin V
and Propidium Iodide (PI) and evaluated by flow cytometry to determine whether apoptosis or
necrosis was induced. Additionally, Hoechst 33258 staining was looked at to explore physical
aspects in order to clarify the nuclear alteration brought on by apoptosis. The findings strongly
imply that NiO@Glu/TSC nanoparticles have the potential to be a therapeutic tool in the fight
against cancer.

(Alizadeh et al. 2020) Investigating the potency of these medications in the chemotherapy
process can be done by measuring the concentration of anticancer agents. A single-pot method
combining ultrasonic sono-chemical and chemical precipitation procedures was used to create a
Pt,Pd-doped then examined utilizing TEM and EDS analytical techniques. The findings of the
analysis demonstrated great elemental purity, good elemental distribution. As a very sensitive
analytical technique for the electrolytic detection of daunorubicin, Pt,

52
Pd-NiO/SWCNTs/1B23DTFB/CP was developed. The electro-oxidation of daunorubicin has
significantly improved in terms of the present and future. It is interesting that the sensor's design
permits accurate measurement of daunorubicin even while tamoxifen (two breast cancer
treatments) is present. In accordance with results from real sample analysis, the Pt,
Pd-NiO/SWCNTs/1B23DTFB/CP has proven to be a promising approach for the analysis and
quantification of daunorubicin and tamoxifen in real (e.g., pharmaceutical) specimens.

(Dhiman, Agnihotri, and Shukla 2019)For synthesis, analysis and anti-fungal and antimicrobial
characteristics of NiCu-PANI/PVA nanocomposite was the major goal of this study. By
employing PVA as a stabiliser and HCl as an oxidising agent, polyaniline was chemically
oxidatively polymerized to create the nanoparticles films with varying amounts of Ni and Cu
salts. Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi were two other fungal plant diseases
tested to determine the antifungal efficacy of NiCu-PANI/PVA films. Ni65Cu35-PANI/PVA,
demonstrated outstanding antimicrobial effectiveness against each and every bacterium strain
examined in this study. NiCu-PANI/PVA shown improved antifungal efficacy against Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. pisi, particularly the films with increased Cu input. But NiCu-PANI/PVA had
no effect on Aspergillus niger.

53
 Chapter 3

3. Materials and Methods

4.

54
3.1 Materials
My research work was conducted and done in the chemistry lab of the University Of Sahiwal
Department Of Chemistry. Following sections contains details of methods adopted and materials
used for this research work. All the required materials and chemicals were of analytical grades
and came from Merck and Sigma Aldrich and were issue all chemicals and apparatus from the
chemistry lab at university of Sahiwal, Pakistan and were used with no further purification. If
purification was required, than the chemicals were purified by standard methods before their use.
All the glassware was washed with the cleansing mixture and was dried in oven before use.
Nickel sulphate, Zinc sulphate, and Sodium hydroxide were the chemicals needed.

 Beaker
 Soap
 Tissue Paper
 Scotch tape
 Binding tape
 Flasks
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Flasks
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Measuring Cylinder
 Baskets
 Aluminium Foil
 Spatula
 Magnetic Stirrer
 Thermometer
 Labelling tag
 Washing brush
 wax tape
 Lemon max bar

55
  Scissor
 Twizzer
 pH strip

3.1.1 Chemicals
 Nickel sulphate
 Zinc sulphate
 KOH/NaOH
 Distilled water

3.1.2 Instruments
 NMR
 Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR)
 EDX
 EDS
 Spatula
 X-ray diffraction (XRD)
 UV/vis
 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
 SEM
 Hot plate
 Magnetic Stirrer

3.2 Experimental Work

3.2.1 Scheme of Work
This work was divided into following steps:

 Sample Collection
 Preparation of nickel(Ni) nanoparticles
 Preparation of Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn) Nano-composites
 Decanting and drying
 Characterization of Nano composites
 Applications

56
3.2.2 Co-precipitation Method
Without utilizing any organic solvents, I successfully prepared Nickel-zinc nanocomposites
employing a cost-effective, uncontaminated, environmental friendly and simple co precipitation
technique. It is, in fact, a helpful procedure that has been demonstrated to be a straightforward
way to obtain nanomaterials. Coprecipitation method is one of the most important procedures for
the synthesis of composites containing two or more types of metal elements, refers to obtaining a
uniform composition in two or more cations homogenous solution through precipitation reaction.

3.2.3 Sample Collection

Precursors were taken from The University of Sahiwal, Punjab, Pakistan. To extract adhered
particles, the apparatus was thoroughly washed with distilled water.

3.2.4 Preparation of Bases

I prepared the solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) of known
molarity for both solutions.

3.2.5 Preparation of Nickel Nanoparticles

It was the most important move. A task of mixing salt solution that must be water soluble was
needed for the preparation of bismuth nanoparticles. In a beaker, 0.1M Nickel sulphate was
mixed with 900 mL distilled water. Then, to make the solution basic, I added NaOH to it until
the pH reached 11 or higher. The mixture was moved to a magnetic stirrer and stirred
thoroughly. Then it was heated for 6 to 7 hours at 60-70°C before being covered with aluminium
foil and left-over night to allow the precipitates to settle.

3.2.6 Preparation of Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Zn) Nano-Composites

First, I prepared 0.1M Nickel salt solution in 600ml of distilled water. Then placed the beaker on
the hot plate and stirred until salt completely dissolved in water. On the other side, I prepared
0.1M Zinc salt solution in 200 ml 0f distilled water and mixed it thoroughly. Then I added tin
solution in Nickel salt solution and stirred it. Then follow the same procedure as before was
used to make Nickel nanoparticles.

57
The co-precipitation method was used to make nanocomposites, and beads were shaped as a
result. Nickel was used as a catalyst. The size of beads or materials can be control by

i. Time
ii. Temperature
iii. Stabilizer
iv. pH

With the soluble salt Nickel sulphate, I made a regular solution. Allow it to stir gently with a
magnetic stirrer. Then, to make the solution basic, I added NaOH to it until the pH reached 11 or
higher. In comparison to non-metal oxides, which are acidic in nature, strong bases are readily
soluble and do not disrupt the solution. Allow 15 to 20 minutes for the solution to stir before
rechecking the pH. Allow to cool for 6 to 7 hours after heating at 60-70 degrees Celsius.
Precipitates were ejected from the spatula.

3.2.7 Decanting and Drying

The nanocomposites were also decanted and dried. The dried nanocomposites were then stored
in a dry, glass viol.

3.3 Calcination
When nickel nanoparticles were synthesized I calcine material in furnace oven for the
purification of the material. Calcination is a process of heating a solid to a high temperature to
remove volatile impurities, oxidize or brittle some of the mass. Calcination is therefore
sometimes considered a refining or purification process. Calcination is a process in which ores
and solid materials are heated below their melting point with limited supply of air it is also called
heat treatment process. Depending on the application the kiln is typically heated to temperatures
between 800°C and 1300°C.

Calcination kiln vary in configuration, but are typically muffle kilns, shaft kilns, reflector kilns
and kilns. Stirring is often used when calcining samples to ensure the consistency of the final
product. Muffle furnaces are constructed so, that the heat source does not come into contact with
the sample being calcined and are often made of iron, masonry, or refractory clay. In a reflection
kiln the heat source is in direct contact with the sample. Shaft furnaces or kiln are cyclic or

58
continuous. Periodic firing kilns are cooled prior to sampling, while continuous firing kilns are
sampled without cooling. Conveyor ovens are a more popular choice as they save energy and
time.

Figure : Schematic Representation of Ni based Nanomaterials

3.4 Methods of Characterization

After calcination process when sample is calcined the characterization process is performed by
using a variety of analytical techniques for the identification of synthesized nickel nanoparticles
including XRD, FTIR, and scanning elctron microscopy (SEM).

3.4.1 X-Ray Diffraction

Nickel (Ni) X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a method frequently used to examine the crystal structure
of metallic nickel. The different planes in the crystal lattice are often represented by a sequence
of prominent peaks in the XRD pattern of nickel. The face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure
of nickel has a peak that is most prominent in the XRD pattern at about 44.5 degrees 2-theta ,
which corresponds to the plane's (111) position. The (200), (220), and (311) planes, among
others, are responsible for additional peaks in the Ni XRD pattern. Ni's XRD pattern can be used
to ascertain the material's crystal structure, lattice parameters, and any impurities or phases that
may be present. In materials science and engineering, XRD analysis is a helpful for analysing
the crystallographic characteristics of a wide range of materials, including metals, ceramics, and
polymers.

Figure: Schematic diagram of x-ray diffraction

3.4.2 FT-IR Technique

FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) is used to examine the structure and features of
nickel matter. The general steps involved in using FTIR in nickel matter are as follows:

59
3.4.2.1 Preparation of Sample
In order to make sure that there are no pollutants or impurities left in the sample that could
impede the analysis, it must be carefully cleaned. To make sure the sample is an accurate
representation of the complete material, it should also be homogenised and ground into a fine
powder.

3.4.2.2 Setting up the FTIR instrument

The manufacturer's instructions for setting up the FTIR instrument should be followed. A
reference material should be used to calibrate the instrument once the sample has been placed on
the sample holder.

3.4.2.3 Collecting Data

The sample will be exposed to infrared radiation from the FTIR instrument, and the radiation that
is reflected or absorbed by the sample will be recorded. The resulting spectrum can provide
information pertaining to the sample's molecular and chemical composition.

3.4.2.4 Analyzing the Data

The FTIR equipment will emit infrared radiation into the sample, and the sample's reflection or
absorption of the radiation will be recorded. The resultant spectrum indicate the information
about the molecular and chemical structure of the material.

Figure: Schematic diagram of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

3.4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The powerful method of high-resolution surface morphology and material composition analysis
is Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The following are the general steps for using SEM
while working with nickel metal.

Make the sample clean. Make sure there are no impurities or dirt particles in the nickel sample.
Solvent cleaning, ultrasonic baths, and other suitable procedures are examples of cleaning
methods. Put the nickel sample firmly on a conductive stub. To improve image quality,
conductive coatings (such as carbon or gold) can be used, particularly if the sample is not

60
naturally conductive. To ensure a concentrated and well-centered electron beam, properly
position the electron cannon.
To achieve precise readings, calibrate the magnification scale using a known standard. SEM
works in a vacuum to stop electrons from scattering. To reach the appropriate vacuum level,
evacuate the chamber.

Depending on the characteristics of your sample and the data you intend to collect, modify the
acceleration voltage. Surface morphology information is obtained by SE imaging. It is very
beneficial for topographical information. The composition and atomic number can be determined
using BSE imaging. Lighter elements seem more vibrant. Connect an EDS detector to the SEM if
it is available. This makes it possible to analyze the sample's elemental composition. The
elemental composition of the sample can be identified by analyzing the X-ray spectra that are
obtained using EDS. Collect samples with the SEM at various magnifications to get a thorough
grasp of the sample morphology. Utilize the proper software to process data, measure features,
and evaluate photos. Elements can be extracted from EDS data and evaluated.

Figure: Schematic diagram of Scanning Electron Microscopy

61
 Chapter 4

4. Results and Discussion

62
4.1 Sample Preparation
I prepared the solution of Nickle sulphate of the same molarity as mentioned below:

4.1.1 Preparation of Nickel Sulphate (NiSO4) Solution

I prepared the 0.05M solution of Nickel Sulphate hexahydrate (NiSO 4.6H2O) by adding 23.65g of
nickel sulphate into the 900ml distilled water.

4.1.2 Preparation of Sodium Hydroxide Solution

I prepared the 1M solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) by adding the 20g NaOH in 500ml
distilled water.

4.2 Synthesis of Nickel Nanoparticles

I prepared the Nickle nanoparticles by co-precipitation method. In this method a prepared salt of
Nickle sulphate hexahydrate (NiSO4.6H2O) 23.65g in beaker placed on hot plate and start only
stirring without heating in this way all the crystals of Nickle sulphate is completely dissolve into
the distilled water and then added the prepared solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 20g in
500ml distilled water drop wise into the solution of nickel sulphate. After that pH meter rod is
dipped into the solution and check the pH of Nickle sulphate solution continuously added
sodium hydroxide solution until the pH gain (11) then stop the adding solution of sodium
hydroxide and put the solution on hot plate and covered with aluminium foil and start heating 60-
70°C and continuous stirring for 6-7 hours. After the reaction the green Nickle nanoparticles is
formed.

4.3 Synthesis of Nickel Zinc (Ni-Zn) Nano-Composites

Firstly, the standard solution of NiSO4.6H2O and ZnSO4.7H2O were prepared. Then 80ml of
standard solution NiSO4.6H2O and 20ml of ZnSO4.7H2O were taken in a beaker and then mixed
both solution and stirrer on a hot plate. Afterward added 1M NaOH standard solution to maintain
pH 11 and heated it on a hot plate for 6-7 hours at 60-70°C.Then allowed the solution was to
settle down for several hours and after decanting and drying precipitates of Ni-Zn
nanocomposites were formed.

63
 Figure: Co-precipitation synthesis method

4.3.1 Calcination
Calcine the nickel nanoparticles and nickel nanocomposites in muffle furnace in order to remove
volatile impurities. Put the nickel nanoparticles solution in crucible and place the crucible in the
muffle furnace.

Figure: Crucible in Muffle Furnace

Than set the temperature of furnace at 800°C and when the furnace achieves the temperature
800°C leave it for heating for 4-5 hours.

The colour of Nickle nanoparticles / nickel-Zinc nanocomposites is observed before calcination

and after calcination. After the calcination process the volatile impurities are removed and Nickle
comes to its original colour.

Figure: Schematic diagram of the Co-precipitation method

4.4 Characterization Techniques

For the calcination of the sample, various analytical techniques are employed to identify
synthesized Nickle nanoparticles. These techniques include X-Ray Diffraction and FTIR
(Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) and scanning electron microscope (SEM).

64
4.4.1 XRD Analysis
X-ray diffraction technique is used to characterize the prepared material to confirm formation of
Ni-Zn nanocomposite. The graph was obtained Four strong 2θ peaks and relative intensities were
noted 37.25, 43.22, 62.86, and 75.23.

Figure : XRD patterns of synthesized Ni-Zn nanocomposites

4.4.2 FT-IR Analysis

The Fourier transformed infrared spectrum was used to measure and observe the vibration and
rotation of molecules, influenced by infrared radiation at particular wavelength.

Figure: The FTIR analysis of Ni Nanoparticle

Figure: FTIR analysis of Ni-Zn Nanocomposites

Different functional groups stucke to the prepared nanomaterial surface were detected through
the infrared light and the different absorption peaks in the range of 3458 and 3048cm-1 for Ni-
NPS and 1635-1619 cm-1 for Ni-Zn nanocomposite were observed. The stretching mode of C-O
bond was 1035 cm-1.

65
 Chapter 5

5. References

66
67
5.1 References

68