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THE GREEN HYDROGEN REVOLUTION – INTEGRATING HYDROGEN INTO

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Copyright Material IEEE
Paper No. PCIC-

Terry Tadlock, P.E. Omar Rubio, PMP Dragan Ristanovic, P.E.

Senior Member, IEEE Siemens Energy Senior Member, IEEE
Bechtel Energy, Inc. 4400 Alafaya Trail Houston, TX
3000 Post Oak Blvd. Orlando, FL 32826 USA
Houston, TX 77056 USA [email protected]
USA [email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract – The application and use of green hydrogen is production of clean hydrogen from green energy sources that
expected to have significant potential to decarbonize industrial have a carbon neutral footprint.
sectors and lead these sectors in energy transition towards a
carbon neutral future. The primary hydrogen production methods Recognizing this opportunity, the Department of Energy (DOE)
are known as grey, blue, and green hydrogen, and are has launched the Hydrogen Energy Earthshot initiative on June
compared. An overview of the hydrogen electrolysis process, 7, 2021. This initiative strives to reduce the cost of hydrogen to
and a review of commercially available hydrogen electrolyzer $1 per 1 kilogram in one decade. This reflects approximately an
technologies is provided. The key considerations for evaluating 80% reduction in the cost of producing clean hydrogen.
hydrogen electrolyzer modules are discussed. The Power-to-X
industrial applications where hydrogen is used as either an II. PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN
intermediate or end product are discussed. Finally, the
integration of electrolyzer module arrays into an industrial A. Methods of Production
electrical distribution system, and the key electric power
requirements and considerations are reviewed. Most hydrogen produced in the North America is produced
using a process called the steam-methane reforming (SMR)
Index Terms — Hydrogen, electrolysis, green hydrogen, process followed by a water-gas shift reaction. In the SMR
renewable energy, energy transition, Power-to-X, harmonics, process, high-temperature steam reacts with methane gas
power factor, Giga-Watt, Paris Agreement (typically from a pipeline) to produce primarily hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. Subsequently, the water-gas shift reaction
I. INTRODUCTION produces carbon dioxide and additional hydrogen by reacting the
carbon monoxide from the SMR process with additional steam.
Hydrogen has been produced since the 17th century when The carbon dioxide can either be released or captured.
Theodore Turquet de Mayrne and Nicolas Lemery poured dilute
sulfuric acid on iron and produced a gas of “inflammable air”. At When carbon dioxide from the SMR process and water-gas
that time, they did not realize that the resulting gas was a shift reaction is released into the atmosphere, this method of
standalone element, and they recorded their scientific finding as hydrogen production is known as “Grey Hydrogen”. While this is
a “burnable form of sulfur” [1]. In late 18th century the French currently the most common method of hydrogen production,
inventor Jacques Charles made a hydrogen balloon to carry him releasing the carbon dioxide to the atmosphere will not support
and another person over a distance of 36 km at a height of up to the goals of the Paris Agreement (to reduce greenhouse gas
550 m. In late 18th century it was discovered that hydrogen had (GHG) emissions to limit global temperature rise and support
practical uses. Three subsequent discoveries in late 19th and development of low GHG emissions).
early 20th century opened the possibilities to use hydrogen in
industrial applications. The three discoveries were: The carbon dioxide from the SMR process and water-gas shift
hydrogenation, the Haber-Bosch process to make ammonia, and reaction can be captured using an amine absorption process or
hydrocracking [1]. a pressure swing absorption process. Once the carbon dioxide
has been captured, it can be compressed and either, utilized or
Today, the primary demand for hydrogen is for petroleum sequestered. Using carbon capture, utilization, sequestration
refining and ammonia production [2]. As industrial-scale (CCUS) does not release the excess carbon dioxide into the
electrolysis becomes commercially viable, hydrogen has atmosphere. When carbon dioxide from the SMR process and
significant potential to decarbonize industrial sectors and lead water-gas shift reaction is captured, utilized or sequestered, this
these sectors in energy transition towards a carbon neutral method of hydrogen production is known as “Blue Hydrogen” [3].
future. These sectors include chemical processes, industrial
applications, steel manufacturing, clean transportation fuels “Green Hydrogen” refers to utilizing solar energy and wind
(eFuel or hydrogen), etc. This transformation will rely upon the energy to power electrolyzers to split water into oxygen gas and
hydrogen gas by hydrogen electrolysis. The hydrogen gas is

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utilized in Power-to-X industrial processes, and the oxygen gas III. ELECTROLYZERS
is either released to atmosphere or utilized in other industrial
processes. A. Types of Electrolyzers

To produce the same volume of hydrogen as is produced by Whether used for direct industrial processing, as an energy
Grey or Blue methods of hydrogen production, a significant source, or as a basis for synthetic e-fuels, sustainably produced
amount of energy is required for the electrolyzers used in Green hydrogen is considered a key technology for the energy
method of hydrogen production. Due to this, renewable solar transition. Thus, green hydrogen plays a central role in the
and wind energy are considered ideal sources of power for successful decarbonization of complex energy systems. Basic
electrolysis. research on hydrogen technologies in the energy sector is well
advanced. It is now a matter of quickly making these
Grey, Blue, and Green are the primary colors of hydrogen technologies competitive. Electrolyzers are differentiated by the
production. The other colors of hydrogen production have more electrolyte materials and the temperature at which they operate,
narrow sources power for the electrolysis process and/or which consist of four main technologies [5]:
different types of CCUS and are beyond the scope of this paper.
While this paper will focus on Green Hydrogen; the concept  Alkaline Electrolyzer (AEL) uses a Sodium or Potassium
applies to utility connected industrial facilities producing Hydroxide or solid alkaline electrolyte at 70-90ºC;
hydrogen using all sources of energy (wind, solar, hydroelectric,  Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) is based on a solid
nuclear, etc.) that provide a pathway to a carbon neutral future. polymer electrolyte operating at 50-80ºC;
 Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) is based on a solid
Power-to-X refers to the various pathways for the conversion, polymer membrane operating at 40-60ºC;
storage, and reconversion of electrical power which is typically  Solid Oxide Electrolyzer (SOE) uses a solid ceramic
generated by renewable energy [4]. Power-to-X is a generic term electrolyte operating at about 700-800ºC.
where X can be hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, syngas, or
eFuels. Green Hydrogen is a Power-to-X application. In the Alkaline Electrolyzer (AEL), the electrolyte responsible
for transporting the hydroxide anions (OH-) is typically a highly
B. Electrolysis of Water concentrated potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. The
electrodes and produced gases are physically separated by a
Hydrogen electrolysis is the decomposition of water (H2O) into porous inorganic diaphragm (also called a separator) that is
hydrogen (H2) gas and oxygen (O2) gas. To understand the permeable to the KOH solution. Alkaline technology has high
basics of hydrogen electrolysis, it will be useful to recall the commercial maturity and operational experience.
experiment (refer to Figure 1) conducted in secondary school
chemistry or science classes. Two electrodes are inserted into In the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolyzer, the
water – one electrode is connected to the battery’s positive membrane is permeable to hydrogen ion (or proton) (H+) but
terminal (the anode) and the other electrode is connected to the impermeable for gases. In other words, this kind of membrane
battery's negative terminal (the cathode). A minimum DC voltage acts as an electrical isolator between anode and cathode side as
is required to initiate the electrolysis process. With this DC well as a physical separator, preventing hydrogen and oxygen
voltage applied, DC current flows into the water and the water from remixing.
molecules are split into oxygen molecules forming at the anode
and the hydrogen molecules forming at the cathode. These In the Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) Electrolyzer, the
gases then bubble to the surface and can either be released to membrane is permeable to hydroxide anions (OH-) and utilizes
the atmosphere or captured. a high-pressure half-cell, and low-pressure half-cell. This
pressure difference prevents remixing of gases and results in
very high purity hydrogen.

In the Solid Oxide Electrolyzer (SOE), the cell consists of an

oxygen electrode (anode) and a hydrogen electrode (cathode)
separated by an ionic conducting electrolyte. Oxygen ions (O2-)
cross the electrolyte layer from cathode to anode. Due to its high
temperature operation, this technology has the potential to
significantly increase the power-to-hydrogen efficiency.

Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) Electrolyzers and Solid

Oxide Electrolyzers (SOE) have high potential but are much less
mature technologies.

Compared to Alkaline Electrolyzers, Proton Exchange

Figure 1 – Electrolysis of Water Membrane (PEM) technology is ideal for working with fluctuating
wind and solar power sources, as it allows a highly dynamic
This experiment illustrates the principals of water electrolysis mode of operation and can be rapidly turned on and off without
and forms the foundation for industrial scale hydrogen production preheating. This method allows optimum efficiency at high power
using electrolysis. densities and good product gas quality even at partial loads. The

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operation is low-maintenance and reliable without the use of C. Electrolyzer Module Array
chemicals or foreign substances.
Electrolyzer manufacturers have created vendor-specific
Figure 2 depicts the principles of these four technologies. assemblies which consist of multiple electrolyzer modules
Common to each of these more complex electrolysis connected in series to achieve a rated power and rated hydrogen
technologies is a DC voltage applied resulting in the production production. An input transformer and rectifiers are added to
of oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode, just like the create a vendor-specific standard solution. These solutions,
simple experiment shown in Figure 1. known as electrolyzer module arrays, enable use of their
standard design. To achieve a desired hydrogen production,
multiple standard electrolyzer module arrays are used.

Presently, electrolyzer module arrays are commercially

available up to 20MW. In the near term, electrolyzer module
arrays up to 100MW are expected [6]. In the future and with
continued technological advancements, electrolyzer module
arrays rated more than 100MW will be possible. As electrolyzer
module arrays grow larger, higher hydrogen production will be
achieved. This will reduce the total investment costs for large-
scale industrial electrolysis plants.

A typical power supply configuration to the Electrolyzer Module

Array consists of the following components:
• Rectifier transformer with MV primary winding and four
LV secondary windings to generate a 24-pulse system
on the MV side using a 15-degree phase shift between
LV windings.
• Thyristor based 6-pulse rectifiers, one per module
string, to convert AC power into DC and adjust DC
voltage and current to achieve the required hydrogen
production rate. Other rectifier topologies are available
in the industry.
• Interconnecting busbars and cables, control cabinets,
miscellaneous equipment.

The rectifiers isolate the AC power system from the DC system

Figure 2 – Types of commercially available electrolysis
required for the operation of the electrolyzer and splits them into
technologies [6]
defined subsystems that are ungrounded. The ungrounded
system allows to continue operation after a single ground fault
B. Electrolyzer Module
permitting a coordinated shutdown instead of a trip.
In an electrolyzer, the electrochemical process takes place
The thyristor-based rectifiers allow smooth adjustment of the
within the cell, which is composed of the anode (+) and cathode
DC voltage over a wide range at the cost of a deteriorating power
(-). The module, also known as stack, is composed of several
factor. The active power of each rectifier is constantly adjusted
electrolysis cells connected in series, where the electrolytic
so that the load of each rectifier is identical, and harmonics are
production of hydrogen and oxygen takes place. The stack also
reduced to a minimum. The high number of cells are connected
contains spacers to insulate opposite electrodes, seals, frames
in series which results in a typical operation voltage of 500-700
for mechanical support, and end plates to prevent leaks and
V DC. This comparably high voltage enables a DC supply with
collect the gases, as shown in Figure 3.
high efficiencies.

On-load circuit breaking on the DC side is achieved via firing

impulse inhibition of the thyristor rectifiers. For complete
separation of the electrolyzer module array from the grid, two off-
load DC disconnectors are installed per module series, one on
each pole from the rectifier. As a back-up, the MV circuit breaker
can be tripped.

Thyristor based rectifiers create significant harmonic content

in the feeding power system. The first step to mitigate these is to
increase the pulse number. The rectifier transformer creates a
24-pulse system that shows a significant improvement over the
individual 6-pulse rectifiers. Evaluation and mitigation of
Figure 3 – Representation of Electrolyzer Module [6]
harmonics is further discussed in Section V of this document.

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D. Key characteristics of Electrolyzer Module Array

Additionally, the utility may impose a minimum power factor,
i. Rated Plant Power - MW (BoL/EoL) e.g. 0.95 [10], that the facility must comply with. To meet this
requirement, power factor correction capacitors (PFCC) will likely
Power consumption throughout the lifecycle of the plant is an be required. The harmonic filters, if used, already include
important design consideration, electrolyzer cells would typically capacitance that can, at least partially, correct the power factor.
have a Beginning of Life (BoL) stack voltage level and a higher If additional PFCC is required, they should be placed in the
End of Life (EoL) stack voltage level derived from the aging of power system at the MV buses to minimize amount of PFCC that
the cell. Based on this, two different design philosophies can be are required.
considered: the plant can be designed on the basis that
hydrogen output is maintained at nominal level over the entire IV. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN
lifetime of the PEM module arrays. This is achieved by increasing
the power fed to the electrolyzer in order to compensate the Today, hydrogen is recognized as a premium product
effect of membrane degradation. If this approach is selected, the produced with purities reaching near 100%. This section
EoL power demand must be used to size the electrical power discusses some of the common industrial applications of
system. Another approach is to design for constant power hydrogen.
consumption, which would mean that hydrogen output would
decrease over time. A. Hydrogen as Fuel

ii. AC System Efficiency Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to generate power using a
chemical reaction instead of combustion, producing only water
The efficiency of electrolysis is determined by the amount of and heat as byproducts. It can be used in cars, in houses, for
electricity used to produce an amount of hydrogen. Depending portable power, and in many other applications.
on the electrolyzer technology used, the efficiency of water
electrolyzers is currently in the region of 60 to 80 % [7]. The Fuel cells take the chemical energy contained within a fuel and
system efficiency of a green hydrogen production facility, when transform the chemical energy into electricity and by-products
measured in units of kilowatt hours consumed per kilograms of [11]. Fuel cells can be considered as energy storage devices,
hydrogen produced (kWh AC / kg H2), is a result of the individual where energy can be used to create hydrogen and oxygen,
efficiencies of the cell, stack, and balance of plant [8]. Innovation which can remain in the cell until its use is needed at a later time.
will be critical to improve efficiency of an electrolyzer system to There are multiple types of fuel cells, two common types are the
reduce the amount of electricity required to produce one kilogram solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and the polymer electrolyte
of hydrogen. membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) [11]. Principle of solid oxide fuel
cell is shown in Figure 4.
iii. Hydrogen Pressure

The hydrogen pressure output from the Electrolyzer Module

Array is a characteristic that must be evaluated. Electrolyzer
Module Arrays from various suppliers can have a hydrogen
delivery pressure that varies from <1 barg to 30 barg. Depending
on the output delivery pressure and the downstream process
needs, additional hydrogen compression may be required to
increase the hydrogen header pressure to a usable pressure for
industrial applications.

iv. Cooling Requirements

Alkaline Electrolyzers and PEM Electrolyzers have an

operating temperature of 50-90ºC. This results in a significant
amount of heat that must be removed from the Electrolyzer
Module Arrays. This may require additional cooling system
consisting of cooling water pumps, cooling water pond, air-
cooled heat exchangers, cooling tower, etc.

v. Harmonics and Power Factor Figure 4 – Fuel cell principle of operation – Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell (SOFC)
Industrial scale applications for hydrogen electrolyzers are
expected to be connected to a utility power system or a captive To produce electricity in a solid oxide fuel cell, oxygen in the
renewable power source. The DC rectifiers will produce air combines with free electrons to form oxide ions. The oxide
harmonic distortions at the PCC that must be evaluated for ions pass through a ceramic electrolyte and react with molecular
compliance to IEEE 519 [9]. If the produced harmonic distortions hydrogen to form water. The reaction that makes water, also
exceed the allowable harmonic limits, then a harmonics filter will releases electrons which pass through an external electrical
be required to bring the harmonics into compliance. circuit, producing electricity [11].

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The use of hydrogen as fuel is actively being researched and eFuels that are easy to store and simple to transport. eFuels can
developed. There are two main reasons for using hydrogen as solve challenges of storing and transporting the renewable
fuel: 1) hydrogen has high energy density, and 2) the only by- energy. At normal ambient temperature and atmospheric
product aside from electricity is water. pressure, renewable energy can be stored easily and
transported to any region in the world by using existing
B. Hydrogen to Methanol technologies.

One increasingly popular industrial method of using hydrogen C. Hydrogen to Ammonia

is in methanol production by the direct combination of hydrogen
and carbon dioxide, as shown in Figure 5: This method offers a The Haber-Bosch process is the main industrial processes to
possibility of turning atmospheric CO2 from carbon capture, or produce ammonia. It involves the direct combination of hydrogen
CO2 from fuel gas extraction, and hydrogen produced from and nitrogen under pressure and temperature in the presence of
electrolysis of water, and synthesizing the two basic components a metal catalyst [1]. The diagram in Figure 6 represents the
into methanol. Subsequently, the methanol can be refined into a basics of Haber-Bosch process.
fossil-fuel substitute. After refinery processing is complete, the
eFuels can be produced. The production of eFuels is based on Ammonia NH3 is used to produce fertilizers based on ammonia
the extraction of hydrogen using an electrolysis process which nitrate. Ammonia is also part of household cleaning products.
required the supplied of electricity [12]. These eFuels can be Producing ammonia from hydrogen is one of the oldest industrial
used as eGasoline, eDiesel, eHeating-oil and eKerosene and applications of hydrogen originating from early 20th century. Even
can completely replace conventional fuels. The eFuels can also today, ammonia represents one of the largest and most common
be blended with conventional fuels in any desired ratio. The uses and applications of hydrogen.
existing logistics, distribution and tank infrastructure, pipelines
and filling stations can stay in place – there is no need for an
expensive change of technologies.

Figure 6 – Ammonia production from hydrogen and nitrogen

Nitrogen is typically extracted from air, and hydrogen is

produced either from water by electrolysis, or extracted from the
natural gas. The process requires nitrogen and hydrogen gases,
mixed in a 1 to 3 ratio, to be placed under pressure and
temperature in a vessel containing a catalyst. As the mixed
gases are passed over multiple catalyst beds, the cooling
between each pass maintains the equilibrium constant for the
Figure 5 – Methanol production by direct combination of reactions. On each pass only about 15% of the gas is converted
hydrogen and carbon dioxide to ammonia. The liquid ammonia is stripped out and the
unreacted gases are recycled. In modern plants, overall
The main challenge is to make the process thermodynamically conversion rates are approximately 97%.
and commercially efficient, i.e. to produce more useful energy in
the methanol and eFuel than the total process energy that it The potential to use ammonia to transport hydrogen is worth
takes to produce it, and to sell eFuel at economically viable price. noting. One of the major challenges in developing the hydrogen-
based approach to energy transition comes from the high cost of
Like any other fuels in combustion process, eFuels release hydrogen transportation, which could be even multiple times
CO2. The carbon footprint neutral impact of eFuels is based on higher than the cost of production itself. Methods of storing
the concept that only as much CO2 is emitted during use of hydrogen for transportation include conversion into pressurized
eFuels as was previously captured during production, and and liquefied form, or conversion to methanol or other types of
electricity from renewable sources can be used in the production. inorganic compounds like metal hydrides. Ammonia is the
Since electricity is used to produce eFuels, the procedure is also desirable medium for hydrogen transportation because it is much
known as a Power-to-X process: electricity is converted into a easier and simpler to liquefy than pure hydrogen. Ammonia also

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contains 1.7 times more hydrogen per cubic meter than liquefied
hydrogen. Ammonia can be used directly as a fuel in some
applications, or it can be reconverted back into hydrogen.

V. POWER SYSTEM INTEGRATION

Designing the electrical power system in an industrial plant

that produces hydrogen requires consideration of the following
key parameters:

1) total power requirements (which can be Giga-Watt scale),

2) individual electrolyzer module array power demand,
3) hydrogen compression to achieve suitable operating
pressures,
4) balance of plant loads including electrolyzer cooling
requirements,
5) harmonic profile at the utility point of common coupling,
6) compliance with the power factor requirements at the
utility point of common coupling.

A. Power System Architecture

Figure 7 – Example of plant’s power system architecture
First, a suitable power source must be identified to supply the
The power is received from high voltage source at HVBUS-01
large Giga-Watt power consumption required. Green hydrogen
within the plant, and then stepped down to medium voltage
projects are expected to be supplied by utility connected
distribution to feed clusters of electrolyzer arrays and other
renewable power sources. Power purchasing agreements are
services. The high voltage level (132kV and higher) selected
usually arranged between the utility and the power consumer.
depends on the available plant voltages from the utility and the
The power, typically at 132 kV and higher, will be transmitted via
total load requirements. The choice of medium voltage level
overhead transmission lines to the facility. Redundant power
depends on number of electrolyzer arrays and capacity of
feeds are preferred for increased reliability.
medium voltage busbar. If 33 kV (IEC) or 34.5 kV (ANSI), gas
insulated switchgear should be considered instead of air
When the transmission lines reach the plant, they are
insulated switchgear to reduce the footprint. At voltages higher
connected to a HV outdoor switchyard, or to a HV gas insulated
than 66 kV level, gas insulated switchgear should be used since
switchgear within the plant, either directly or via underground
air insulated switchgear is typically not available for these voltage
cable transition. From the HV switchyard or gas insulated
levels and using an outdoor switchyard would require excessive
switchgear, the voltage is then stepped down by transformers for
space.
further distribution within the facility.
The example in Figure 7 shows two main-tie-main 33kV gas
It is important to recognize that a large plant with hydrogen
insulated switchgear buses (MVBUS-01xx). With 3,150 A rated
production by water electrolysis can have dozens or hundreds of
busbar and circuit breaker at 33 kV level, the bus can take up to
electrolyzer arrays, with each array in the range of 20 MW. There
180 MVA load. One 33 kV gas insulated switchgear arrangement
is a perfect opportunity to standardize power distribution within
with 180 MVA capacity can supply eight (8) electrolyzer module
the facility by developing a medium voltage distribution template
arrays of approximately 20 MW per array, low voltage auxiliaries,
configuration to feed standardized clusters of electrolyzer
and can connect harmonic filters and power factor compensation
module arrays. The balance of plant (e.g. compression services;
equipment (HF AND PFC).
electrolyzer cooling; hydrogen processing to methanol,
ammonia, etc.) can be designed separately according to the
The electrolyzer module arrays are connected to the medium
unique features of plant’s process requirements and conditions.
voltage 33kV bus using transformers with a single medium
voltage input and multiple LV secondary windings. The rectifiers
Figure 7 shows an example of a power system architecture in
are supplied from these LV secondary windings and provide DC
a plant that produces hydrogen by electrolysis.
power required by the electrolyzer module arrays. In Figure 7,
the typical block ELECTROLYZER (TYP.) represents
electrolyzer module array with rectifiers and multi-winding input
transformer to connect to medium voltage at a single point. The
power factor at the input of this block is typically around 0.9
lagging.

To minimize the number (and associated cost) of HV circuit

breakers, the HV feeder supply a three-winding transformer, with
one primary HV winding rated 360 MVA and two 33kV secondary
windings at 33 kV rated 180 MVA, making the total capacity of

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this single three-winding circuit equal to 360 MVA. Figure 7 at the input of the rectifiers impact the electrical network the
shows redundant configuration of two three winding transformers rectifiers are connected. The harmonic distortions generated
HVTR-01A and HVTR-01B, feeding two 33 kV switchgear depend on the system impedance at the point of common
lineups MVBUS-01A/B1 and MVBUS-01A/B2. A hydrogen coupling and the amount of harmonic current distortion (THDI)
production plant with many electrolyzer module arrays and a injected into the system. A harmonic voltage distortion (THDU)
repeatable configuration is a perfect example where three- also occurs as a result.
winding transformers can be used to optimize the power
distribution system and reduce the electrical system cost. By The typical “not-to-exceed” harmonic level requirements at the
using three-winding transformers, the number of HV breakers point of grid interface, point of common coupling (PCC), are
feeding electrolyzer areas and the number of transformers given in IEEE 519 [9] but some utility companies may have their
feeding electrolyzer areas can be reduced by half. Further details own requirements. The more stringent of IEEE 519 or the utility
about application, selection and design of three-winding company’s requirements will be the maximum permitted
transformers is given in [13]. harmonic values for the project.

B. Hydrogen Compression On a project with large electrolyzer module arrays with

rectifiers, a harmonics study is required to determine THDI and
Hydrogen is typically produced at relatively low pressures THDU at the point of common coupling with the utility. When the
between 20 and 30 bars and must be compressed prior to calculated values exceed the maximum permitted harmonic
transport [14]. Most compressors used for gaseous hydrogen values, harmonic filter(s) will be needed to reduce the harmonic
compression are either positive displacement compressors or distortions at the point of common coupling with the utility.
centrifugal compressors. Positive displacement compressors
can be reciprocating or rotary. After identifying which harmonic orders are contributing most
to the harmonic distortion, the harmonic filter can be designed
On projects where conventional centrifugal compressors are with stages to specifically filter these harmonic orders and reduce
used, electrical motors would typically be used driven by the the individual and overall harmonic distortion. The harmonic
compressors. In a large plant with hydrogen produced by study requires actual equipment data and detailed
electrolysis, there are likely to be multiple hydrogen compressors representation of the components of the electrical system. The
and associated compressor motors to compress the hydrogen final filter design should include margins and provisions for future
produced by groups of electrolyzer module arrays. Since changes in the electrical system. The harmonic filters should be
hydrogen compression can be split to serve groups of installed nearest to the source of the harmonics which, in this
electrolyzer module arrays, the rating of electric motors in case, is the MV voltage level.
hydrogen compressor service can be kept within the range of
10,000 HP to 15,000 HP. If electric network short circuit capacity Figure 8 shows an example of current waveform and current
is high enough, motors of those power ratings can be started harmonics spectrum of an electrolyzer array at the primary
direct on-line, one by one. In addition, induction motors can be medium voltage side of the input transformer. Input transformer
used instead of synchronous, which simplifies the application. is a five-winding transformer, e.g. one primary medium voltage
winding and four low voltage windings to four individual rectifiers,
C. Cooling each rectifier feeding its section of electrolyzer array.

Cooling loads associated with electrolyzers are a significant

energy consumer. The process of water electrolysis generates
heat during the dissociation of water into oxygen and hydrogen.
Compact cooling systems for the large electrolyzer module
arrays are available; however, chilled water systems are very
costly and cooling tower systems have too much water loss
associated with drift. As an alternative, an open loop pond water
circulation system can be implemented. The pond cooling is
simple, but the plot restrictions may not allow large enough pond
for the full cooling loads. The pond system can also be
supplemented by a bank of air coolers. It should be noted that
Alkaline and PEM electrolyzers produce a large amount of heat
removal at temperatures too low to generate steam and/or
power.

On projects involving electrolyzers in hydrogen production, the

cooling system requires thorough consideration and may have
significant impacts on the project.

D. Harmonics
Figure 8 – Example of 4 parallel 6-pulse (24-pulse
The rectifiers utilized in the electrolyzer module array are a equivalent) rectifier current harmonics
non-linear load and are a source of harmonics. The harmonics

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Four secondary windings connected to four individual rectifiers

are phase shifted. Since individual rectifier is a 6-pulse device, To model for the harmonic analysis studies, it is important to
connecting four rectifiers through four phase shifted low voltage determine sources of current harmonics, model components of
windings makes the entire assembly effectively a 24-pulse. the electrical system, select location of harmonic filter, and define
Figure 8 demonstrates a fairly “smooth” sinusoidal waveform, criteria and scenarios for harmonic filter sizing. Many scenarios
which is expected from an equivalent 24-pulse harmonic. need to be evaluated to consider different load conditions in the
plant, capacitors and filters stages, and different electrical
The medium voltage 35 kV busbar total voltage harmonics system configurations.
distortion is 7.57 %, and at the point of common coupling (PCC),
the HV bus 345 kV, the total voltage harmonic distortion is E. Power Factor
4.26%.
Large industrial plants with hydrogen production by
The maximum permitted voltage distortion limits from IEEE electrolyzers usually connect to an electric utility grid. Power
519 are shown in Table I. factor demand at the grid interface is specified by Utility
Company and it is often stringent, e.g. higher than 0.95 [10]. The
Table I – Voltage Distortion Limits Per IEEE 519 [9] main building block of the power consumption structure in the
Bus Voltage V at PCC Individual Total harmonic hydrogen production plant, the electrolyzer array, at the medium
Harmonic (%) Distortion THD voltage primary side of its input transformer, has power factor
(%) typically around 0.9 lagging. Also, another side effect of using
V  1.0 kV 5.0 8.0 thyristor-based rectifiers is that control of the DC voltage requires
1 kV  V  69 kV 3.0 5.0 an adjustment of the firing angle, which will cause an increased
69 kV  V  161 kV 1.5 2.5 reactive power draw of the rectifier. Between the high voltage,
where point of interface with the utility is, and medium voltage,
161 kV  V 1.0 1.5
where inputs to electrolyzer systems are, there is at least one
more set of transformers, with reactive power losses, so total
At the point of common coupling at 345 kV, if no filters are
power factor is significantly lower than 0.9. To meet a utility
used, the total harmonic distortion of 4.26% is higher than the
requirement of 0.95, power factor compensation will be required.
maximum allowed 1.5% per Table I. Even though 24-pulse
waveform is fairly smooth, harmonic filters are required. This
Harmonic filters are usually connected on medium voltage,
clearly illustrates that the decision whether harmonic filters are
where they are most effective because electrolyzer arrays with
required should not be solely based on the number of pulses of
rectifiers as sources of harmonics are connected to medium
the rectifier system. Instead, a harmonic study must be
voltage through input transformers. Harmonic filters have
performed to evaluate the harmonics at the PCC.
capacitances as part of filter units and help compensate reactive
power and improve the power factor.
After the harmonics study was done, it was determined that
three-stage filters on each 35 kV bus was adequate to address
In example in Figure 9, if harmonic filters are not used, and
the harmonics. Stages were tuned at 5th,11th and 23rd harmonic,
there are no other capacitors, power factor at the medium voltage
with damping. With filters, the medium voltage 35 kV busbar total
bus would be 89.9% and power factor at the high voltage bus,
voltage harmonics distortion is 2.68 %, and at the point of
the point of common coupling (PCC) bus is 81.3%. If filters are
common coupling (PCC), the HV bus 345 kV, the total voltage
included on medium voltage to address harmonics, power factor
harmonic distortion is 1.48%. Figure 9 shows voltage waveform
improves, and in the example, medium voltage bus power factor
at the point of common coupling 345 kV bus without filters and
is 96.77%, and at the PCC on the HV bus the power factor is
with filters.
90.72%. Typically, additional power factor compensation
equipment (PFC) is needed to regulate power factor to
acceptable level, in this example above 95%.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

There are significant challenges ahead to meet the target

reducing the cost of hydrogen to $1 per 1 kilogram in one decade
outlined by the Hydrogen Energy Earthshot initiative.

However, continued development of large-scale hydrogen

electrolyzers will create the opportunities for Giga-Watt scale
hydrogen production facilities utilizing clean renewable power.
These Giga-Watt scale hydrogen production facilities will be
complementary to the continued development of green energy
(wind and solar) sources by providing a large but dispatchable
load that will allow increased capacity factor for these renewable
energy sources.
Figure 9 – Voltage waveform at the HV point of common
coupling (PCC) without and with filtering

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Integrating large-scale hydrogen electrolyzers in an industrial energy.com/siemens/assets/api/uuid:a33a8c39-b694-

application creates many challenges in the design of the electric 4d91-a0b5-4d8c9464e96c/efficiency-white-paper.pdf
power system. These challenges include obtaining and [9] IEEE Std. 519-2014, IEEE Recommended Practice and
distributing large scale electric power, designing the system to Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power
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[13] S. Nambi, J. Kazmierczak, T. Tadlock, P. Parsan,
The authors would like to acknowledge our employers, Bechtel Application, Selection and Design of Three-Winding
Energy Inc. and Siemens Energy, for supporting our efforts in Transformers in LNG and Petrochemical Facilities, IEEE
this paper. The authors would also like to thank the peer Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 56, No. 5, pp.
reviewers and editors of this paper for their valuable comments. 4632–4639, Sept.-Oct. 2020.
[14] United States Department of Energy (DOE), Office of
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