Unit-1

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICAL LAYER

Introduction to Data Communications- Networks – Network Types –
Protocol Layering – TCP/IP Protocol suite – OSI Model – Introduction to
Sockets- Socket Programming-Physical Layer: Data and Signals -
Performance – Transmission Media – Switching – Circuit Switched Networks
– Packet Switching
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.
 When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A NETWORK
The effectiveness of a network depends on three characteristics.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

CRITERIA NECESSARY FOR AN EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT NETWORK

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Factors that affect the Factors that affect Factors that affect the
Performance of a network: the Reliability Security of a network:
of a network:
1. Number of users 1. Efficiency of software. 1. Protecting data from
2. Type of transmission 2. Frequency of failure unauthorized access and
medium 3.Recovery time of a viruses.
3. Capabilities of the network after a failure
connected hardware

COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN A NETWORK PROCESS

The five components are:

1. Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, pictures, audio, video etc.
2. Sender - It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset etc.
3. Receiver - It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset etc.
4. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radiowaves etc.
5. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but
not communicating.

KEY ELEMENTS OF PROTOCOL

 Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented.
 Semantics: Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing: Refers to two characteristics. (1). When data should be sent and (2). How fast they
can be sent.

TRANSMISSION MODES
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as
transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media
provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

Types of Transmission mode

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex Mode
o Half-duplex Mode
o Full-duplex mode (Duplex Mode)

SIMPLEX MODE

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one
direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot
send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not
require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never
allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only
accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the
screen.
 o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel
can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

HALF-DUPLEX MODE

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive
the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs,
then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.
o In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks
and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot
be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the
entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this
causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

FULL-DUPLEX MODE

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one
direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
 o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a Telephone network. When two
people are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at
the same time.

Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.

COMPARISON - SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX AND FULL-DUPLEX MODE

BASIS FOR SIMPLEX HALF-DUPLEX MODE FULL-DUPLEX

COMPARISON MODE MODE

Direction of Communication is Communication is Communication is

communication unidirectional. bidirectional, but one at a time. bidirectional.
Send/Receive A device can only send Both the devices can send Both the devices
the data but cannot and receive the data, but one can send and
receive it or it can only at a time. receive the data
receive the data but simultaneously.
cannot send it.
Example Radio, Keyboard, and Walkie-Talkie Telephone
monitor. network.

LINE CONFIGURATION / LINE CONNECTIVITY

Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. There are two possible line
configurations:
i. Point to Point (PPP): Provides a dedicated Communication link between two devices. It is simple to
establish. The most common example for Point-to-Point connection is a computer connected by
telephone line. We can connect the two devices by means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or
satellite link.
ii. MultiPoint : It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more
devices share a single link.There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections.
 Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, it is called Spatially shared
line configuration

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Two or more devices connect to a link. Two or more links form a topology.Topology is
defined as
The way in which a network is laid out physically.
The geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and nodes to one-another.
The various types of topologies are : Bus, Ring, Tree, Star, Mesh and Hybrid.

BUS TOPOLOGY

 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to single cable.
 The long single cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
 When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
 It transmits data only in one direction.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
 5. Easy to expand joining two cables together

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more, the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING TOPOLOGY

 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
 When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the
bits and passes them along.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network

TREE TOPOLOGY

 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 It is also called hierarchical topology.
 It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
 Tree topology is ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 They are used in Wide Area Network.
 Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

STAR TOPOLOGY

 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another.
 The controller acts as an exchange.
 If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails, then the whole network is stopped.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH TOPOLOGY

 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects.
 The number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes is given by n (n –
1) / 2.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

 Hybrid Topology is a combination of one or more basic topologies.

 For example if one department in an office uses ring topology, the other departments uses
star and bus topology, then connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology.
 Hybrid Topology inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble 1. Complex in design.
shooting is easy. 2. Costly
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

NETWORK TYPES
 A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
 A computer network can be categorized by their size.
 A computer network is mainly of three types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o LAN can be connected using a common cable or a Switch.
Advantages of LAN
 Resource Sharing
 Software Applications Sharing.
 Easy and Cheap Communication
 Centralized Data.
 Data Security
 Internet Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
 High Setup Cost
 Privacy Violations
 Data Security Threat
 LAN Maintenance Job
 Covers Limited Area
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
o WAN can be either a point-to-point WAN or Switched WAN.

Point-to-point WAN Switched WAN

Advantages of Wide Area Network: Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

o Large Geographical area o Security issue
o Centralized data o Needs Firewall & antivirus software
o Exchange messages o High Setup cost
o Sharing of software and resources o Troubleshooting problems
o High bandwidth

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).It is adequate for distributed computing
applications

INTERNETWORK

o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN.

o An Internetwork can be formed by joining two or more individual networks by means
of various devices such as routers, gateways and bridges.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.

Types of Internetwork
Extranet Intranet
An extranet is used for information
An intranet belongs to an organization
sharing. The access to the extranet is
which is only accessible by
restricted to only those users who have
the organization's employee or
login credentials. An extranet is the lowest
members. The main aim of the intranet is
level of internetworking. It can be
to share the information and resources
categorized as MAN, WAN or other
among the organization employees. An
computer networks. An extranet cannot
intranet provides the facility to work in
have a single LAN, atleast it must have
groups and for teleconferences.
one connection to the external network.

1. Introduction to Sockets-Socket Programming

A socket is one endpoint of a two way communication link between two programs running on the
network. The socket mechanism provides a means of inter-process communication (IPC) by
establishing named contact points between which the communication take place.
Like ‘Pipe’ is used to create pipes and sockets is created using ‘socket’ system call. The socket
provides bidirectional FIFO Communication facility over the network. A socket connecting to the
network is created at each end of the communication. Each socket has a specific address. This address
is composed of an IP address and a port number.
Socket are generally employed in client server applications. The server creates a socket, attaches
it to a network port addresses then waits for the client to contact it. The client creates a socket and
then attempts to connect to the server socket. When the connection is established, transfer of data
takes place.

A socket is an endpoint for sending and receiving data in a network, used in both TCP and UDP
communication. Mastering socket programming is key for building network applications.

Types of Sockets : There are two types of Sockets: the datagram socket and the stream socket.
 1. Datagram Socket : This is a type of network which has connection less point for sending and
receiving packets. It is similar to mailbox. The letters (data) posted into the box are collected and
delivered (transmitted) to a letterbox (receiving socket).
2. Stream Socket In Computer operating system, a stream socket is type of interprocess
communications socket or network socket which provides a connection-oriented, sequenced, and
unique flow of data without record boundaries with well defined mechanisms for creating and
destroying connections and for detecting errors. It is similar to phone. A connection is established
between the phones (two ends) and a conversation (transfer of data) takes place.

Socket Programming

Socket programming is a way to connect two nodes on a network so they can communicate with
each other. It enables the exchange of data between applications running on different devices or
computers. A socket is an endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs running
on a network. It is bound to a port number so that the TCP layer can identify the application that data
is destined to be sent to.
In simple terms, a socket is like a door between two applications. When you want to send data
from one application to another, you need to open a door (create a socket) on both sides. The sending
application puts the data through its door, and the receiving application picks it up from its own door.
Socket programming involves creating a socket, binding it to a specific address and port, and then
sending or receiving data through that socket. It provides a way for applications to communicate with
each other over a network, regardless of whether they are running on the same device or on different
devices.
In Java, there are two main classes used for connection-less socket programming:
DatagramSocket and DatagramPacket

DatagramSocket

This class represents a socket for sending and receiving datagram packets over a network. It
allows you to send and receive individual packets of data without establishing a dedicated connection.
Let’s see how to create a DatagramSocket:
DatagramSocket socket = new DatagramSocket();
DatagramPacket
This class represents a datagram packet, which is used to encapsulate the data being sent or
received through a DatagramSocket. It contains the data as well as the IP address and port number of
the destination or source. Here's an example of creating a DatagramPacket:
byte[] data = "Hello, world!".getBytes();
InetAddress address = InetAddress.getByName("localhost");
int port = 1234;
DatagramPacket packet = new DatagramPacket(data, data.length, address, port);
In this example, we create a byte array containing the data we want to send, specify the destination
address and port, and then create a DatagramPacket with that information.
These two classes form the foundation of connection-less socket programming in Java. They allow
you to send and receive data packets without establishing a dedicated connection, making them
suitable for scenarios where quick and lightweight communication is needed.

Socket Programming in TCP

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable,
ordered, and error-checked delivery of data between applications running on hosts communicating
over an IP network. Socket programming in TCP involves establishing a connection between a client
and a server before data can be exchanged.
Let’s discuss them in detail now :
Server-side
 Create a server socket using the ServerSocket class.
 Bind the server socket to a specific port number.
 Wait for client connections using the accept() method, which blocks until a client connects.
 Once a client connects, create a new socket to handle the communication with that specific client.
 Use input and output streams (InputStream and OutputStream) to read from and write to the client
socket.
 Close the client socket when the communication is finished.
Client-side
 Create a client socket using the Socket class, specifying the server's IP address and port number.
 Use input and output streams (InputStream and OutputStream) to read from and write to the server
socket.
 Close the client socket when the communication is finished.

Here's a simple example of a TCP server and client in Java:

Server:
ServerSocket serverSocket = new ServerSocket(1234);
Socket clientSocket = serverSocket.accept();
InputStream input = clientSocket.getInputStream();
OutputStream output = clientSocket.getOutputStream();
// Read from and write to the client socket
clientSocket.close();
serverSocket.close();

Client
Socket socket = new Socket("localhost", 1234);
InputStream input = socket.getInputStream();
OutputStream output = socket.getOutputStream();
// Read from and write to the server socket
socket.close();

In this example, the server creates a ServerSocket and waits for a client to connect. Once a client
connects, it creates a new Socket to handle the communication. The client creates a Socket and
specifies the server's address and port. Both the server and client use input and output streams to read
from and write to each other.
TCP socket programming provides reliable communication and is suitable for applications that require
ordered and error-free data delivery, such as file transfers or messaging systems.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender
to the receiver.
o Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form
of bits (Either as Electrical signals or Light pulses).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types : Guided Media (Wired) and UnGuided Media
(wireless).

o In guided (wired) media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in unguided
(wireless) media, signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and
ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, i.e.,
Physical layer.

FACTORS FOR DESIGNING THE TRANSMISSION MEDIA

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the
higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due
to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels
over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.

CAUSES OF TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases
with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of
distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to
 the delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is added
to it which creates the noise.

TYPES / CLASSES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

GUIDED MEDIA
 It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted.
 It is also known as Bounded media.
 Types of Guided media: Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable , Fibre Optic Cable

TWISTED PAIR CABLE

 Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
 A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
 Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
 The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Suports low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.

o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.

o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
 Advantages :
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.

Advantages :
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o Installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages:
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.

COAXIAL CABLE

o Coaxial cable(Coax) is a very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire
is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh.
o The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner
conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
o Common applications of coaxial cable are Cable TV networks and traditional
Ethernet LANs.

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings.
Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire
gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the
construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function.

Types of Coaxial cable :

1.Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
2.Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.
Advantages :
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages :
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
 FIBRE OPTIC CABLE

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.

Advantages:
o Greater Bandwidth
o Less signal attenuation
o Immunity to electromagnetic interference
o Resistance to corrosive materials
o Light weight
o Greater immunity to tapping

Disadvantages :
o Requires Expertise for Installation and maintenance
o Unidirectional light propagation.
o Higher Cost.

Propagation Modes of Fibre Optics

 Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for
 propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different
physical characteristics.
 Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index.

Multimode Propagation
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths.
How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core.

Multimode Step-index fiber Multimode Graded-index fiber

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of The multimode graded-index fiber,

the core remains constant from the center to decreases this distortion of the signal
the edges. through the cable.
A beam of light moves through this constant The word index here refers to the index of
density in a straight line until it reaches the refraction.
interface of the core and the cladding. The index of refraction is related to density.
At the interface, there is an abrupt change due A graded index fiber, therefore, is one with
to a lower density; this alters the angle of the varying densities.
beam’s motion. Density is highest at the center of the core
The term step-index refers to the suddenness and decreases gradually to its lowest at the
of this change, which contributes to the edge.
distortion of the signal as it passes through the
fiber.

Single-Mode Propagation

 Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
 The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than
that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of refraction).
  The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to
make the propagation of beams almost horizontal.
 In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and delays are
negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination “together” and can be
recombined with little distortion to the signal.

UNGUIDED MEDIA
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

o Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories :

Radio Waves, Microwaves , Infrared

RADIO WAVES

o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1Khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages of Radio waves:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

MICROWAVES

Microwaves are of two types - Terrestrial microwave & Satellite microwave

Terrestrial Microwave
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam
of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to
another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers
are at the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Terrestrial Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz
to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

Advantages of Terrestrial Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Terrestrial Microwave:

o Eavesdropping.
o Out of phase signal
o Susceptible to weather condition
o Bandwidth limited

Satellite Microwave
o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
o The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless
communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of
the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

INFRARED WAVES

o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over

short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
and devices that resides in the same closed area.
 Characteristics of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication
in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

SWITCHING

o The technique of transferring the information from one computer network to

another network is known as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches.
o A switch is a small hardware device which is used to join multiple computers
together with one local area network (LAN).

o Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or

more devices linked to the switch.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been addressed. It
verifies the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.

Advantages of Switching:
o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.
o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information to only that
device which has been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the traffic on the
network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain for each
connection.

Disadvantages of Switching:
o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.
o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to handle multicast
packets.

Types of Switching Techniques

CIRCUIT SWITCHING

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving
the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Phases in Circuit Switching

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

1. Connection Setup / Establishment - In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established

from the source to the destination through a number of intermediate switching
centres. The sender and receiver transmits communication signals to request and
acknowledge establishment of circuits.

2. Data transfer - Once the circuit has been established, data and voice are transferred
from the source to the destination. The dedicated connection remains as long as
the end parties communicate.

3. Connection teardown / Termination - When data transfer is complete, the

connection is relinquished. The disconnection is initiated by any one of the user.
Disconnection involves removal of all intermediate links from the sender to the
receiver.

Advantages
 It is suitable for long continuous transmission, since a continuous transmission
 route is established, that remains throughout the conversation.
 The dedicated path ensures a steady data rate of communication.
 No intermediate delays are found once the circuit is established. So, they are
suitable for real time communication of both voice and data transmission.

Disadvantages
 Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between the end parties. This
dedicated connection cannot be used for transmitting any other data, even if the
data load is very low.
 Bandwidth requirement is high even in cases of low data volume.
 There is underutilization of system resources. Once resources are allocated to a
particular connection, they cannot be used for other connections.
 Time required to establish connection may be high.
 It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required
for each connection.

PACKET SWITCHING

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.

Advantages of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require
massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-
effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that
the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that
require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
 packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.

APPROACHES OF PACKET SWITCHING

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
o Datagram Packet switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching

Datagram Packet switching

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity.
o Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
o There are no setup or teardown phases.
o Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.

In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but
may travel different paths to reach their destination.
 Routing Table
In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on the desti

Delay in a datagram network

 The packet travels through two switches.

 There are three transmission times (3T),three propagation delays (slopes 3t of the
lines), and two waiting times (w1 + w2).
 We ignore the processing time in each switch.
Total delay = 3T + 3t + w1 + w2

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a virtual connection is established before
the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI)

A virtual circuit identifier (VCI) that uniquely identifies the connection at this switch. A
VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used by a
frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it
leaves, it has a different VCI.
 Types of Virtual Circuits
There are two broad classes of Virtual
Circuits. They are
1. PVC – Permanent Virtual Circuit
Network Administrator will configure the state
The virtual circuit is permanent (PVC)

2. SVC – Switched Virtual Circuit

A host can send messages into the network to cause the state to be established.
This is referred as signaling.
A host may set up and delete such a VC dynamically without the involvement
of a network administrator

Delay in Virtual-Circuit
Networks

The packet is traveling through two switches (routers).

There are three transmission times (3T ), three propagation times (3t), data transfer
depicted by the sloping lines, a setup delay (which includes transmission and
propagation in two directions), and a teardown delay (which includes transmission
and propagation in one direction).
Total delay = 3T + 3t + Setup delay + Teardown delay

COMPARISON – CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING

PACKET SWITCHING
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Virtual Circuit Datagram Switching
Switching

Connection oriented Connection oriented Connection less

Packets may be delivered

Ensures in order delivery Ensures in order delivery
out of order

No reordering is required No reordering is required Reordering is required

A dedicated path exists for A dedicated path exists for No dedicated path exists for
data transfer data transfer data transfer
All the packets take the same All the packets take the All the packets may not take
path same path the same path
Resources are allocated Resources are allocated on
No resources are allocated
before data transfer demand using 1st packet

Stream oriented Packet oriented Packet oriented

Fixed bandwidth Dynamic Bandwidth Dynamic bandwidth

Reliable Reliable Unreliable

No overheads Less overheads Higher overheads

Implemented at physical Implemented at data link Implemented at network

layer layer layer
Inefficient in terms of Provides better Provides better efficiency
resource utilization efficiency than circuit than message switched
switched systems systems
Example- Telephone systems Examples- X.25, Frame
Example- Internet
relay

MESSAGE SWITCHING

o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a

complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the
sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This
type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
 PROTOCOL LAYERING
In networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
A protocol provides a communication service that the process use to exchange
messages.
When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol.
When the communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between
different layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol
layering.
Protocol layering is that it allows us to separate the services from the
implementation.
A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to give
the services to the upper layer.
Any modification in one layer will not affect the other layers.

Basic Elements of Layered Architecture

Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with
peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the
messages used.
Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.

Features of Protocol Layering

1.It decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable
components.
2.It provides a more modular design.

Principles of Protocol Layering

1.The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to
make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each
direction.
2.The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.

Protocol Graph
 The set of protocols that make up a network system is called a protocol graph.
 The nodes of the graph correspond to protocols, and the edges represent a
dependence relation.
 For example, the Figure below illustrates a protocol graph consists of protocols
RRP (Request/Reply Protocol) and MSP (Message Stream Protocol) implement
two different types of process-to-process channels, and both depend on the HHP
(Host-to- Host Protocol) which provides a host-to-host connectivity service
 OSI MODEL
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.
o It is a reference model that describes how information from a software application
in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

ORGANIZATION OF THE OSI LAYERS

 FUNCTIONS OF THE OSI LAYERS
1. PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream
over a physical medium.
The physical layer is concerned with the following functions:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media - The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.
 Representation of bits - To transmit the stream of bits, it must be encoded to
signals. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
 Data Rate or Transmission rate - The number of bits sent each second –is also
defined by the physical layer.
 Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit
level. Their clocks must be synchronized.
 Line Configuration - In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared
between several devices.
 Physical Topology - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected using a mesh, bus, star or ring
topology.

 Transmission Mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of

transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

2. DATA LINK LAYER

It is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the

next node. The other responsibilities of this layer are
Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units called frames.
Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network , data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and
receiver.
Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a flow ctrl
mechanism.
Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames and
to prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at the
end of the frame.
Medium Access control -Used to determine which device has control over the link
at any given time.

3. NETWORK LAYER

This layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from source to destination.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
Logical addressing - If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system for source and destination called logical address. This
addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
Routing – Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines
the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.

4. TRANSPORT LAYER

It is responsible for Process to Process delivery. That is responsible for source-to-

destination (end-to-end) delivery of the entire message, It also ensures whether the
message arrives in order or not.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
Port addressing / Service Point addressing - The header includes an address
called port address / service point address. This layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly - The message is divided into segments and each
segment is assigned a sequence number. These numbers are arranged correctly on
 the arrival side by this layer.

Connection control - This can either be connectionless or connection oriented.

 The connectionless treats each segment as an individual packet and delivers
to the destination.
 The connection-oriented makes connection on the destination side before the
delivery. After the delivery the termination will be terminated.
Flow control - The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
Error Control - Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the
single link..

5. SESSION LAYER

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between

applications. The other responsibilities of this layer are
Dialog control - Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
Synchronization- Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data
in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then
the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known
as Synchronization and recovery.

6. PRESENTATION LAYER

It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of information exchanged

between two systems.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
Translation – Different computers use different encoding system, this layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. It will
change the message into some common format.
Encryption and decryption-It means that sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message over the n/w. and
vice versa.
Compression and expansion-Compression reduces the number of bits contained
in the information particularly in text, audio and video.

7. APPLICATION LAYER
This layer enables the user to access the network. It handles issues such as network
transparency, resource allocation, etc. This allows the user to log on to remote user.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
FTAM (File Transfer, Access, Management) - Allows user to access files in a
remote host.
Mail services - Provides email forwarding and storage.
Directory services - Provides database sources to access information about
various sources and objects.

TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 The TCP/IP architecture is also called as Internet architecture.
 It is developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)
for its packet switched network (ARPANET).
 TCP/IP is a protocol suite used in the Internet today.
 It is a 4-layer model. The layers of TCP/IP are
1. Application layer
2. Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Interface Layer

APPLICATION LAYER
 An application layer incorporates the function of top three
OSI layers. An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 Protocols such as FTP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, etc running in the application layer
provides service to other program running on top of application layer

TRANSPORT LAYER
 The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.
 The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
o UDP – UDP provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission. It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
o TCP – TCP provides a full transport layer services to applications. TCP is a
reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.

INTERNET LAYER
 The internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
 Internet layer handle the transfer of information across multiple networks through
router and gateway .
 IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

NETWORK INTERFACE LAYER

 The network interface layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 This layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

COMPARISON - OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL

 S.No OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL
1 Defined before advent of internet Defined after the advent of Internet.
2 Service interface and protocols Service interface and protocols were not
are clearly distinguished before clearly distinguished before

3 Internetworking not supported TCP/IP supports Internet working

4 Strict layering Loosely layered

5 Protocol independent standard Protocol Dependant standard

6 Less Credible More Credible

7 All packets are reliably delivered TCP reliably delivers packets, IP does
not reliably deliver packets

NETWORK PERFORMANCE
Network performance is measured in using:
Bandwidth, Throughput, Latency, Jitter, RoundTrip Time

BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth of a network is given by the number of bits that can be transmitted
over the network in a certain period of time.
Bandwidth can be measured in two different values: bandwidth in hertz and
bandwidth in bits per second.

Bandwidth in Hertz
o Bandwidth in hertz refers to the range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass.
o For example, we can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.

Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds

o Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds refers to the number of bits transmitted per
second.
o For example, the bandwidth of a network is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means
that this network can send 100 Mbps.

Relationship
o There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in
bits per second.
o Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth
in bits per second.

THROUGHPUT
Throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
Bandwidth in bits per second and throughput may seem to be same, but they are
different.
A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link. (T always less than B).
In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput
is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we
cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

Problem :
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames
per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

LATENCY (DELAY)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to travel
from one end of a network to the other.
Latency is made up of four components: Propagation time, Transmission time,
Queuing time and Processing delay.

Propagation Time
o Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source to
the destination.
o The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the propagation
speed.
o The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on
the frequency of the signal.

Transmission Time
o In data communications we don’t send just 1 bit, we send a message.
o The first bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination.
o The last bit also may take the same amount of time.
o However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit
arriving at the receiver.
o The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier.
o The last bit leaves later and arrives later.
o The transmission time of a message depends on the size of the message and the
bandwidth of the channel.

Queuing Time
o Queuing time is the time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed.
o The queuing time is not a fixed factor. It changes with the load imposed on the
network. When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases.
o An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages and
processes them one by one.
o If there are many messages, each message will have to wait.

Processing Delay
o Processing delay is the time that the nodes take to process the packet header.
o Processing delay is a key component in network delay.
o During processing of a packet, nodes may check for bit-level errors in the packet
that occurred during transmission as well as determining where the packet's next
destination is.

Bandwidth - Delay Product

o Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link.
o The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the
link.
o This measurement is important if we need to send data in bursts and wait for the
acknowledgment of each burst before sending the next one.

JITTER

o Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter.

o Jitter is a problem that if different packets of data encounter different delays and the
application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video
data, for example).
o If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the third is
40 ms, then the real-time application that uses the packets endures jitter.
 ROUND-TRIP TIME (RTT)

o RTT refers to how long it takes to send a message from one end of a network to the
other and back, rather than the one-way latency. This is called as round-trip time
(RTT) of the network.

SOLVED PROBLEMS – PERFORMANCE

Problem 1:
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s .
Solution :
Propagation time = (12000 * 1000) / (2.4 × 108) = 50 ms

Problem 2:
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-KB (kilobyte)
message (an email) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at
2.4 * 108 m/s.
Solution:
Propagation time = (12000 * 1000) / (2.4 * 108 ) = 50 ms
Transmission time = (2500 * 8) / 109 = 0.02 ms

Problem 3:
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-MB (megabyte)
message (an image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at
2.4 * 108m/s.
Solution:
Propagation time = (12000 * 1000) / (2.4 * 108 ) = 50 ms
Transmission time = (5000000 * 8) / 106 = 40 s