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Information Technology
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Computer Definition
 A computer is an electronic machine that can receive, process data, generate, and
store output data (information) to solve problems or perform tasks

Data Information
raw, unprocessed facts and figures without context or the output of data that has been analyzed and structure given
meaning on their own. meaning and context, making it useful for decision-making or
understanding.

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Computer System

Hardware Software

Computer
System

Data User

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Computer Hardware
Input Units Output Units System Units

• Devices that allow users to • Devices that allow the

• The main body of a desktop
interact with the computer computer to communicate
computer and houses the
by providing data or the results of its processing
internal hardware
instructions to the system to the user or another
components that process
for processing system
and store data.
• Examples • Examples
• Examples
Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Monitor/Display Screen,
Power Supply, Motherboard,
Microphone, Camera, Barcode Printer, Speakers, Headphones,
Storage Units
reader Projector, Plotter
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System Units
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Power supply
 Convert the alternating current (AC) from a wall
socket of mains electricity to a low-voltage direct
current (DC) to operate the motherboard, processor,
and peripheral devices

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Motherboard
 A motherboard (also called the mainboard or
system board) is the central circuit board in a
computer.
 It connects and allows communication between the
various hardware components of the system.

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Motherboard Components
 CPU Socket
 Heat Sinks and Fan Headers
 Expansion Slots
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slots are used to connect expansion
cards such as:
• Graphics cards (GPUs).
• Network cards.
• Sound cards.
• Random Access Memory (RAM) Slots
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Motherboard Components…
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 BIOS Chip:
• The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) chip stores the firmware, a type of low-level software
that controls the boot process and hardware initialization before the operating system loads.
• The BIOS also allows users to configure hardware settings like boot order, voltage, and clock
speeds.
 CMOS Battery:
• The CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) battery powers the real-time clock
(RTC) and stores basic settings like date, time, and system configuration even when the computer
is powered off.
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Motherboard Components…
 Chipset:
• The chipset controls data flow between the processor,
memory, and peripherals.
• It is divided into two parts:
• Northbridge: Connects high-speed components like the
CPU, RAM, and graphics card.
• Southbridge: Manages slower components like PCI
slots, USB ports, and SATA connections.

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CPU Components
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs all arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (comparisons, AND, OR
operations).
• It is crucial for executing instructions that involve calculations and decision-making.
 Control Unit (CU)
• Directs the processor's operation. It manages the data flow within the CPU and coordinates the activities of all the other
components.
• The control unit interprets instructions from memory and translates them into control signals to execute the operations.
 Registers
• Small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU hold temporary data and instructions currently being processed.
• Registers provide quick access to frequently used data and instructions, significantly speeding up processing.

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CPU Components
 Cache Memory
• A small amount of high-speed memory inside the CPU stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce access
time.
• Reduces the time it takes for the CPU to access data from the main memory (RAM).
 BUS
• Manages data transfer between the CPU and other components like memory and input/output devices through a system
bus
• Ensures efficient communication and data flow between the CPU and other parts of the computer.
 Clock
• Provides the timing signals that synchronize all the operations within the CPU. The clock speed, measured in hertz (Hz),
determines how many cycles the CPU can perform per second.
• A higher clock speed generally means better performance, as the CPU can execute more instructions in a given time
frame.

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Storage Units

Classification Based on Location Classification Based on Volatility Classification Based on Technology

Classified based on its categorized based on the
Volatility refers to whether
proximity to the CPU and its underlying technology used for
memory retains data after the
role in the data processing storage
power is turned off.
hierarchy.
• Volatile Memory • Magnetic Memory
• Primary Memory • Semiconductor Memory
• Non-Volatile Memory
• Secondary Memory • Optical Memory
• Flash Memory

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Sorting Storage Units
Storage Units by Speed (Fastest to slowest) Storage Units by Size (Smallest to largest)
• Register • Register
• Cache • Cache
• RAM • RAM
• SSD • Optical Drives (CD/DVD)
• HDD • SSD
• Optical Drives (CD/DVD) • HDD

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Memory Capacity units
 Byte (B) = 8 bit
 1Kilo Byte (KB) =1024 B
 1Mega Byte (MB) =1024 KB
 1Giga Byte (GB) =1024 MB Why 1024
 1Tera Byte (TB) =1024 GB

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Number Systems

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

(Base-10) (Base-2) (Base-8) (Base-16)

The base of the system is the number of digits that make up the system

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Octal
Decimal

Binary

Hexadecimal

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Decimal to Binary
 Ex (105)10 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
105 >= 64 1 105 – 64 = 41 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
41 >= 32 1 41 – 32 = 9 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
9 >= 16 0 9
9 >= 8 1 9–8=1
1 >= 4 0 1
1 >= 2 0 1 (105)10 = (1101001)2
1 >= 1 1 1–1=0

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Binary to Decimal
 Ex (1011000)2 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
 64 +16 + 8 = 88 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0

(1011000)2 = (88)10

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Octal to Binary
 Ex ( 3 0 7 )8

011 000 111

➢ (307)8 = (011000111)2

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Binary to Octal
 Start from the right, group every 3 binary digit to be one octal digit
 Ex ( 10011010)2

2 3 2
➢ (10011010)2 = (232)8

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Hexadecimal to Binary
 Ex ( 3 A 7 )16

0011 1010 0111

➢ (3A7)16 = (001110100111)2

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Binary to Hexadecimal
 Start from the right, group every 4 binary digit to be one hex digit
 Ex ( 10011010)2

9 A
➢ (10011010)2 = (9A)16

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ASCII Code
 ASCII Code starts from 0 to 127 in decimal with an incremented sequence
 English letters
 Uppercase ➔ A = ( 1000001 )2 = ( 65 )10 , B = ( 66 )10 , ….
 Lowercase ➔ a = ( 1100001 )2 = ( 97 )10 , b = ( 98 )10 , ….
 Control Characters
 Space ➔ = ( 0100000 )2 = ( 32 )10
 Numbers
0 = ( 0110000 )2 = ( 48 )10 , 1 = ( 49 )10 , ….
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ASCII Code - Example
Convert the word “Ali5" to its corresponding ASCII code values in both decimal and binary
representations.

•A: ASCII decimal code 65, binary 1000001

•l: ASCII decimal code 108, binary 1101100
•i: ASCII decimal code 105, binary 1101001
• : ASCII decimal code 32, binary 0100000
•5: ASCII decimal code 53, binary 0110101

So, the ASCII codes for “Ali5" are:

•Decimal: 65 108 105 32 53
•Binary: 1000001 1101100 1101001 0100000 0110101

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RGB Color Model

 Red Green Blue

 Each color takes
value
 Decimal 0 – 255
 Hex 00 – FF

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Example
 Color R:40, G: 198, B: 55 is #28 C6 37 in Hex
1. R: 40 = (00101000 )2 = (2 8 )16
2. G: 198 = (11000110 )2 = (C 6 )16
3. R: 55 = (00110111 )2 = (3 7)16

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Operating System
 Operating system: controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the
various users
 Examples of OS
 Desktop: Windows, macOS, Linux.
 Mobile: Android, iOS.
 Embedded Systems: FreeRTOS, VxWorks.
All of these operating systems have different
generations, versions, and upgrades.
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Operating System Objectives
When any operating system is built, it focuses on three main objectives:
 Efficiency of the OS in terms of responsiveness, fluidity, and so on
 Ease of usability to the user in terms of making it convenient
 Ability to abstract and extend to new devices and software

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OS Key Terms
• Kernel:
• The core of the OS, handling critical tasks like process management, memory management, and
I/O.
• Shell:
• Interface (command line or GUI) through which users interact with the OS.

Graphical User Interface

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Functions of OS
 Resource Management
 User Interface (UI)
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 File System Management:
 Security and Access Control

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Operating System Types
 Single-user, single-task
• Designed for one user to perform one task at a time
• Processes are executed sequentially, one after another
• Example:
• MS-DOS: It required the user to type commands to perform actions

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Operating System Types
 Single-user, multi-tasking
• Designed for one user, but capable of running multiple tasks simultaneously.
• run multiple applications (e.g., a web browser, word processor, and music player) at the same
time.
• Multitasking: Uses time-sharing techniques to switch between tasks quickly, giving the appearance
of simultaneous execution.
• Focus on usability and functionality for individual users.
• Examples:
• Microsoft Windows
• macOS

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Operating System Types
 Multi-user, Multi-tasking
• Supports multiple users working on the system simultaneously.
• Designed for environments like servers, workstations, and mainframes where resource sharing is
essential.
• Multi-user: Resources (CPU, memory, disk) are shared among multiple users through time-
sharing.
• Multitasking: Each user can run multiple tasks or processes simultaneously.
• Examples:
• UNIX: Used in servers, scientific computing, and enterprise systems.
• Linux: An open-source OS used in servers, personal computers, and supercomputers
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Operating System Types
 Real-time operating system (RTOS)
• Designed for applications that require precise timing and reliability.
• environments where processing time is critical (e.g., embedded systems, industrial automation).
• Hard Real-Time Systems: Guarantees task completion within strict time limits (e.g., pacemakers,
airbag systems).
• Soft Real-Time Systems: Prioritizes tasks but allows minor delays (e.g., video streaming, gaming
consoles).
• Lightweight and highly optimized for specific tasks.
• Examples:
• LynxOS: A real-time OS used in aerospace, defense, and industrial systems
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Operating System Types
 Embedded Operating System
• Tailored for specific devices that perform dedicated functions.
• Found in devices where hardware and software work closely together to achieve optimal
performance.
• Microwaves, Washing Machines, Traffic Control Systems, Smart TVs
• Limited user interaction compared to general-purpose OS.
• Examples
• Embedded Linux
• FreeRTOS.

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Bootstrap
 Bootstrapping is the process of loading a set of instructions when a computer is
first turned on or booted.
 The bootstrap program is then loaded to initialize the OS.
 When a computer turns on, the processor will execute the instructions that are
presented to it; generally, the first code that runs is for the boot flow, called bootstrap,
which is a framework stored in ROM contains some instructions called basic input
output instructions (BIOS).

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32-bit and 64-bit OS
 there are two types of processors existing, i.e., 32-bit and 64-bit processors.
 A 32-bit system can access 2^32 different memory addresses, i.e 4 GB of RAM or
physical memory.
 A 64-bit system can access 2^64 different memory addresses, i.e (18 exabytes) of
RAM.
 A computer with a 64-bit processor can have a 64-bit or 32-bit version of an
operating system installed.
 However, with a 32-bit operating system, the 64-bit processor would not run at
its full capability.
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Computer Network
 A computer network is a system of
interconnected devices that communicate and
share resources such as data, applications,
and hardware

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Main Network Components
 Two or more End Devices: Computers, smartphones, servers, etc.

 Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware component that connects a computer to a network.

 It provides the physical interface for network communication, allowing devices to send and
receive data over a network.

 Transmission Media

 Wired: Ethernet cables (fast, secure).

 The coaxial (or co-ax) cable

 Twisted pair cables

 Fiber optic cables

 Wireless: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth (convenient).

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Main Network Components
 Networking Device(s)
 Hub is a device that lets nodes communicate with each other
 A hub cannot recognize who is sending the information or who is supposed to receive it
 it repeats all the data packets it receives so that all the nodes that are connected to it receive that data, including the node that
sent the information.
 Hubs are also slow because they cannot send and receive at the same time.
 Switch is a hub that has the added ability to control the flow of network traffic
 only sends data packets to a node when the data packet is addressed to that node.
 Switches can also send and receive at the same time, which makes them faster than hubs.
 Router passes information between two networks, such as a home network and the Internet.
 Routers are more intelligent because they make smarter decisions; the fastest way possible to pass information between two
networks,
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 They only send a packet to its intended destination
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Main Network Components
 Software

 Network Operating System (NOS): Manages network resources.

 Protocols: Communication rules that dictate how data is transmitted

 HTTP/HTTPS: For web traffic.

 FTP: For file transfer.

 SMTP: For email.

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Basic Network Types
Client-server networks
• Client-server networks are common in
businesses.
• They are useful because they keep all shared
data in one location.
• This makes file backups much easier.
• Client-server networks also keep files up-to-date
and easy-to-find by ensuring users work on one
shared file in one location (instead of working on
multiple copies saved to multiple locations).

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Basic Network Types
Peer-to-peer networks
• Peer-to-Peer networks are more common in
homes.
• Each device on a peer-to-peer network can
access any of the others if the login and
password are known.
• This allows users to share resources and
information.

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Type Of Area Networks
Personal Area Network(PAN):
• Small network for personal devices.
• Example: Bluetooth connection between a smartphone and laptop.

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Type Of Area Networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN is the most common type of network that connects a group of devices that are in
small geographical area like an office or home.
• High speed and low cost.

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Type Of Area Networks
Wide Area Networks
• A WAN is a group of devices connected in large geographical area such as country
• A WAN often connects LANs

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Type Of Area Networks
Metropolitan Area Network(MAN):
• Covers a city or a large campus.
• Example: University network.

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Network topology is the way

Network a network’s flow of data is
Topology arranged depending on the
needs of the network.

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Network Topology
Star Topology Networks
connect each device to a switch or hub with a
dedicated cable.
fast and very reliable.

If one cable or node fails, it will not affect the

performance of other nodes or cables.
However, if the hub or switch fails, it will take down
the entire network.
more expensive to install because they require extra
hardware (hub/switch) and use the most amount of
cable.
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Network Topology
Ring Topology Networks
connect all devices in a circular ring pattern where
data only flows in one direction.
Each node receives and passes on the data until it
reaches the intended recipient node, which processes
the data.
Ring networks can process information quickly
because it only flows in one direction.
However, a failure in any cable or device will take
down the entire network.
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Network Topology
Bus Topology Networks
connect all devices with a single cable that is functioned as a
shared communication channel that devices can tap into without
a separate network connection device.
On a bus network, a device that wants to connect to another
device on the same network sends a message that is broadcasted
to all connected devices, but only accepted and processed by the
device the message was intended for.
Bus networks are inexpensive (less cable) and easy to install.
If the main cable fails, the network fails.
Users will also experience performance problems if too many
devices are connected; therefore, it’s best to keep Bus networks
limited to 30 devices.

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Network Topology
Tree Topology Networks
▪ connect multiple star topology networks
together into a bus topology.
▪ Only hub devices connect to the bus.
▪ Tree topology is a network arrangement
that supports future network growth.
▪ A network can avoid those limitations
with a tree topology.
▪ Bus topology is limited in the number of
devices it can support
▪ star topology is limited in the number of
connection points it can support.
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Network Topology
Mesh Topology Networks
connect all devices on the network together.
Each mesh network device has special mesh
network software installed so that it can
automatically choose the quickest path to the
intended recipient.
This is called dynamic routing.

❑ Mesh topology is faster and more powerful

than other topologies
❑ Mesh topology is ideal for large areas because
the more nodes you install, the bigger and
faster it becomes.
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Key Network Terminologies
 IP Address
• Logical address
• A unique identifier assigned to devices in a network (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
• IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.210.100)(decimal)
• IPv6: 128-bit address (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334)(hex)

 MAC Address:
 A hardware/Physical address that uniquely identifies a
device on a network.
 48-bit address displayed as six groups of two hexadecimal
digits separated by colons (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E)(hex)

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IPCONFIG
ipconfig can find IP configuration information for
each affected host (network device) on Windows
devices.
Typing ipconfig into the command prompt
displays a summary of the key network
information concerning that computer, including
 the name of the network adapter (the network interface
card)
 the domain name the adapter is using
 the IP address
 the subnet mask
 how the default gateway (router) is configured for the
adapter

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