Multiple linear regression,

Linear and non Linear,

Introduction of clustering,

K means clustering,

Multilayer perception,

Logistic Regression,

Neural networks,

Decision tree,

Regression tree,

Kernel function.

Decision Tree Classification Algorithm

o Decision Tree is a Supervised learning technique that can be used

for both classification and Regression problems, but mostly it is
preferred for solving Classification problems. It is a tree-structured
classifier, where internal nodes represent the features of a
dataset, branches represent the decision rules and each leaf
node represents the outcome.

o In a Decision tree, there are two nodes, which are the Decision
Node and Leaf Node. Decision nodes are used to make any decision
and have multiple branches, whereas Leaf nodes are the output of
those decisions and do not contain any further branches.

o The decisions or the test are performed on the basis of features of the
given dataset.

o It is a graphical representation for getting all the possible

solutions to a problem/decision based on given conditions.

o It is called a decision tree because, similar to a tree, it starts with the

root node, which expands on further branches and constructs a tree-
like structure.

o In order to build a tree, we use the CART algorithm, which stands

for Classification and Regression Tree algorithm.
 o A decision tree simply asks a question, and based on the answer
(Yes/No), it further split the tree into subtrees.

o Below diagram explains the general structure of a decision tree:

Note: A decision tree can contain categorical data (YES/NO) as well as

numeric data.

Why use Decision Trees?

There are various algorithms in Machine learning, so choosing the best

algorithm for the given dataset and problem is the main point to remember
while creating a machine learning model. Below are the two reasons for
using the Decision tree:

o Decision Trees usually mimic human thinking ability while making a

decision, so it is easy to understand.

o The logic behind the decision tree can be easily understood because it
shows a tree-like structure.

Decision Tree Terminologies

 Root Node: Root node is from where the decision tree starts. It represents
the entire dataset, which further gets divided into two or more homogeneous
sets.

 Leaf Node: Leaf nodes are the final output node, and the tree cannot be
segregated further after getting a leaf node.

 Splitting: Splitting is the process of dividing the decision node/root node

into sub-nodes according to the given conditions.

 Branch/Sub Tree: A tree formed by splitting the tree.

 Pruning: Pruning is the process of removing the unwanted branches from

the tree.

 Parent/Child node: The root node of the tree is called the parent node,
and other nodes are called the child nodes.

How does the Decision Tree algorithm Work?

In a decision tree, for predicting the class of the given dataset, the algorithm
starts from the root node of the tree. This algorithm compares the values of
root attribute with the record (real dataset) attribute and, based on the
comparison, follows the branch and jumps to the next node.

For the next node, the algorithm again compares the attribute value with the
other sub-nodes and move further. It continues the process until it reaches
the leaf node of the tree. The complete process can be better understood
using the below algorithm:

o Step-1: Begin the tree with the root node, says S, which contains the
complete dataset.

o Step-2: Find the best attribute in the dataset using Attribute

Selection Measure (ASM).

o Step-3: Divide the S into subsets that contains possible values for the
best attributes.

o Step-4: Generate the decision tree node, which contains the best
attribute.

o Step-5: Recursively make new decision trees using the subsets of the
dataset created in step -3. Continue this process until a stage is
reached where you cannot further classify the nodes and called the
final node as a leaf node.
Example: Suppose there is a candidate who has a job offer and wants to
decide whether he should accept the offer or Not. So, to solve this problem,
the decision tree starts with the root node (Salary attribute by ASM). The root
node splits further into the next decision node (distance from the office) and
one leaf node based on the corresponding labels. The next decision node
further gets split into one decision node (Cab facility) and one leaf node.
Finally, the decision node splits into two leaf nodes (Accepted offers and
Declined offer). Consider the below diagram:

Attribute Selection Measures

While implementing a Decision tree, the main issue arises that how to select
the best attribute for the root node and for sub-nodes. So, to solve such
problems there is a technique which is called as Attribute selection
measure or ASM. By this measurement, we can easily select the best
attribute for the nodes of the tree. There are two popular techniques for ASM,
which are:

o Information Gain

o Gini Index

1. Information Gain:
 o Information gain is the measurement of changes in entropy after the
segmentation of a dataset based on an attribute.

o It calculates how much information a feature provides us about a class.

o According to the value of information gain, we split the node and build
the decision tree.

o A decision tree algorithm always tries to maximize the value of

information gain, and a node/attribute having the highest information
gain is split first. It can be calculated using the below formula:

1. Information Gain= Entropy(S)- [(Weighted Avg) *Entropy(each feature)

Entropy: Entropy is a metric to measure the impurity in a given attribute. It

specifies randomness in data. Entropy can be calculated as:

Entropy(s)= -P(yes)log2 P(yes)- P(no) log2 P(no)

Where,

o S= Total number of samples

o P(yes)= probability of yes

o P(no)= probability of no

2. Gini Index:

o Gini index is a measure of impurity or purity used while creating a

decision tree in the CART(Classification and Regression Tree) algorithm.

o An attribute with the low Gini index should be preferred as compared

to the high Gini index.

o It only creates binary splits, and the CART algorithm uses the Gini
index to create binary splits.

o Gini index can be calculated using the below formula:

Gini Index= 1- ∑jPj2

Pruning: Getting an Optimal Decision tree

Pruning is a process of deleting the unnecessary nodes from a tree in order

to get the optimal decision tree.

A too-large tree increases the risk of overfitting, and a small tree may not
capture all the important features of the dataset. Therefore, a technique that
decreases the size of the learning tree without reducing accuracy is known
as Pruning. There are mainly two types of tree pruning technology used:

o Cost Complexity Pruning

o Reduced Error Pruning.

Advantages of the Decision Tree

o It is simple to understand as it follows the same process which a

human follow while making any decision in real-life.

o It can be very useful for solving decision-related problems.

o It helps to think about all the possible outcomes for a problem.

o There is less requirement of data cleaning compared to other

algorithms.

Disadvantages of the Decision Tree

o The decision tree contains lots of layers, which makes it complex.

o It may have an overfitting issue, which can be resolved using

the Random Forest algorithm.

o For more class labels, the computational complexity of the decision

tree may increase.

Python Implementation of Decision Tree

Now we will implement the Decision tree using Python. For this, we will use
the dataset "user_data.csv," which we have used in previous classification
models. By using the same dataset, we can compare the Decision tree
classifier with other classification models such
as KNN SVM, LogisticRegression, etc.

Steps will also remain the same, which are given below:

o Data Pre-processing step

o Fitting a Decision-Tree algorithm to the Training set

o Predicting the test result

o Test accuracy of the result(Creation of Confusion matrix)

o Visualizing the test set result.

1. Data Pre-Processing Step:

Below is the code for the pre-processing step:

1. # importing libraries

2. import numpy as nm

3. import matplotlib.pyplot as mtp

4. import pandas as pd

5. #importing datasets

6. data_set= pd.read_csv('user_data.csv')

7. #Extracting Independent and dependent Variable

8. x= data_set.iloc[:, [2,3]].values

9. y= data_set.iloc[:, 4].values

10. # Splitting the dataset into training and test set.

11. from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

12. x_train, x_test, y_train, y_test= train_test_split(x, y, test_size= 0.

25, random_state=0)

13. #feature Scaling

14. from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler

15. st_x= StandardScaler()

16. x_train= st_x.fit_transform(x_train)

17. x_test= st_x.transform(x_test)

In the above code, we have pre-processed the data. Where we have loaded
the dataset, which is given as:
2. Fitting a Decision-Tree algorithm to the Training set

Now we will fit the model to the training set. For this, we will import
the DecisionTreeClassifier class from sklearn.tree library. Below is the
code for it:

1. #Fitting Decision Tree classifier to the training set

2. From sklearn.tree import DecisionTreeClassifier

3. classifier= DecisionTreeClassifier(criterion='entropy', random_state=0)

4. classifier.fit(x_train, y_train)
In the above code, we have created a classifier object, in which we have
passed two main parameters;

o "criterion='entropy': Criterion is used to measure the quality of split,

which is calculated by information gain given by entropy.

o random_state=0": For generating the random states.

Below is the output for this:

Out[8]:

DecisionTreeClassifier(class_weight=None, criterion='entropy',
max_depth=None,

max_features=None, max_leaf_nodes=None,

min_impurity_decrease=0.0, min_impurity_split=None,

min_samples_leaf=1, min_samples_split=2,

min_weight_fraction_leaf=0.0, presort=False,

random_state=0, splitter='best')

3. Predicting the test result

Now we will predict the test set result. We will create a new prediction
vector y_pred. Below is the code for it:

1. #Predicting the test set result

2. y_pred= classifier.predict(x_test)

Output:

In the below output image, the predicted output and real test output are
given. We can clearly see that there are some values in the prediction vector,
which are different from the real vector values. These are prediction errors.

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4. Test accuracy of the result (Creation of Confusion matrix)

In the above output, we have seen that there were some incorrect
predictions, so if we want to know the number of correct and incorrect
predictions, we need to use the confusion matrix. Below is the code for it:

1. #Creating the Confusion matrix

2. from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix

3. cm= confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred)

Output:
In the above output image, we can see the confusion matrix, which
has 6+3= 9 incorrect predictions and62+29=91 correct predictions.
Therefore, we can say that compared to other classification models,
the Decision Tree classifier made a good prediction.

5. Visualizing the training set result:

Here we will visualize the training set result. To visualize the training set
result we will plot a graph for the decision tree classifier. The classifier will
predict yes or No for the users who have either Purchased or Not purchased
the SUV car as we did in Logistic Regression. Below is the code for it:

1. #Visulaizing the trianing set result

2. from matplotlib.colors import ListedColormap

3. x_set, y_set = x_train, y_train

4. x1, x2 = nm.meshgrid(nm.arange(start = x_set[:, 0].min() - 1, stop = x

_set[:, 0].max() + 1, step =0.01),

5. nm.arange(start = x_set[:, 1].min() - 1, stop = x_set[:, 1].max() + 1, st

ep = 0.01))

6. mtp.contourf(x1, x2, classifier.predict(nm.array([x1.ravel(), x2.ravel()]).

T).reshape(x1.shape),

7. alpha = 0.75, cmap = ListedColormap(('purple','green' )))

 8. mtp.xlim(x1.min(), x1.max())

9. mtp.ylim(x2.min(), x2.max())

10. fori, j in enumerate(nm.unique(y_set)):

11. mtp.scatter(x_set[y_set == j, 0], x_set[y_set == j, 1],

12. c = ListedColormap(('purple', 'green'))(i), label = j)

13. mtp.title('Decision Tree Algorithm (Training set)')

14. mtp.xlabel('Age')

15. mtp.ylabel('Estimated Salary')

16. mtp.legend()

17. mtp.show()

Output:

The above output is completely different from the rest classification models.
It has both vertical and horizontal lines that are splitting the dataset
according to the age and estimated salary variable.

As we can see, the tree is trying to capture each dataset, which is the case of
overfitting.

6. Visualizing the test set result:

Visualization of test set result will be similar to the visualization of the

training set except that the training set will be replaced with the test set.
 1. #Visulaizing the test set result

2. from matplotlib.colors import ListedColormap

3. x_set, y_set = x_test, y_test

4. x1, x2 = nm.meshgrid(nm.arange(start = x_set[:, 0].min() - 1, stop = x

_set[:, 0].max() + 1, step =0.01),

5. nm.arange(start = x_set[:, 1].min() - 1, stop = x_set[:, 1].max() + 1, st

ep = 0.01))

6. mtp.contourf(x1, x2, classifier.predict(nm.array([x1.ravel(), x2.ravel()]).

T).reshape(x1.shape),

7. alpha = 0.75, cmap = ListedColormap(('purple','green' )))

8. mtp.xlim(x1.min(), x1.max())

9. mtp.ylim(x2.min(), x2.max())

10. fori, j in enumerate(nm.unique(y_set)):

11. mtp.scatter(x_set[y_set == j, 0], x_set[y_set == j, 1],

12. c = ListedColormap(('purple', 'green'))(i), label = j)

13. mtp.title('Decision Tree Algorithm(Test set)')

14. mtp.xlabel('Age')

15. mtp.ylabel('Estimated Salary')

16. mtp.legend()

17. mtp.show()

Output:
As we can see in the above image that there are some green data points
within the purple region and vice versa. So, these are the incorrect
predictions which we have discussed in the confusion matrix.