UNIT 1: UNITS,DIMENSIONS AND MEASUREMENTS

Physical Quantity
Any measurable quant ities are called physical quantities. The physical Quantities are
ength, mass, time, area, density, volume, temperature & force etc.

Types of Physical Quantity

Fundamental physical quantity

The quantities like length, mass and time are mutually independent and are called as
fundamental physical quantity.
These are represented by length, mass & time.

Derived physical quantity

The quantities which are derived from fundamental physical quantities (length, mass & t ime)
are called as derived physical quantity.
Ex: Area = Length (L) x Breadth (B) = L x B =L x L = L2

Units
It is the standard reference for measurement & it compares with the given physical
quantity.
Ex: Length of the rod is 10 cm.
This centimeter (1cm) is the standard reference and 10 is the number. This means the length of the
rod is 10 times more than 1 cm (standard Reference).

Types of Units

Fundamental Units
The units for fundamental quantities (length, mass & time) are called Fundamental Unit.
Ex: cm, meter, feet, gram, kilogram, pound, seconds.
 Derived Units
The unit which are derived from the fundamentals units are called Derived units.
Ex: Unit of Area= Lx B=L x L=L2 = m2, cm2 etc.

System of Units

Units
System Length Mass Time
CGS Cm Gram Second
FPS Feet Pound Second
MFS Metre Kilogram Second

SI System
Now a days SI system is a commonly used measurement of physical quantity. SI system means
‘System International ale d’ Unit’ (System of International) System International de-units. In
1960, General conference held on weight and measurement and all scientists are accepted basic
units [S.I] for “7” basic Physical quantities and two supplementary quantities.

Table for Basic physical quantities

Sl.No Quantity SI unit Symb

ol
1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram kg
3 Time Second S
4 Temperature Kelvin K
5 Electric current Ampere A
6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7 Amount of Mole mol
Substance

Supplementary Quantities

Sl. No Quantity SI. Unit Symbol

1 Plane angle Radian rad
2 Solid angle Steradian Sr

Multiples & Sub-multiples

The larger numbers like 1000000000 & smaller numbers like 0.000000002 are expressed in
the form of 10+x or 10-x. Here 10+x is called multiples and 10-x are called sub-multiples.
Ex:
 1000000000=1X109{Multiple value}
 0.00000001=1X10-9{Sub multiple value}
 Multiples Prefix Symbol
101 Deca da/D
102 Hecta h/Ha
103 Kilo K
106 Mega M
109 Giga G
1012 Tera T
1015 Pera P
1018 Exa E

Submultiples Prefix Symbol

10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro µ
10-9 Nano n
10-12 Pico p
10-15 Femto f
10-18 Atto a

Rules of writing S.I. Units

 If a unit is named after person, the symbol is capital letter.
Ex: N or J
 Other than that should be write in small letters.
Ex: cm, m etc.
 Symbols are not expressed in plural forms.

 Full stop, commas or other punctuation marks are not to be written after symbols of units.
 There is no space between prefix and symbols. {Ex: Kilogra

Advantages of S.I. units

 Decimal relationship between units of same quantity makes it possible to express any small or
large quantity as a power of 10.
 It is a rationalized system of units. It means there is one unit for one physical quantity.
 i.e., Mechanical energy, electrical energy, heat energy etc are all expressed in Joules.
 It is a coherent system.
 Symbols assigned by SI system remains same irrespective of the languages used.

Dimensions
The power to which fundamental physical quantities are raised to obtain (to express) the units
of given physical quantity is called Dimensions.
These are represented by [Ma Lb Tc]
Where a, b, c are called numbers (Constants) and are depends on given physical quantity. Ex:
Area = L x b=L x L=L2
Area = [M0 L2 T0]
Dimensional Equations
It is the relation between values (powers) of fundamental physical quantities of given
physical quantities.
Ex: Volume = L x b x h=L x L x
L=L3 Volume = [M0 L3 T0]
Density = Mass/Volume= M1 / L3 = M1 L-3 Density = [M1 L-3 T0]

Table for Dimensions of Physical Quantities

Physical
Formula SI Unit Dimensions
quantity
Length L m [M0 L1 T0]
Mass M Kg [M1 L0 T0]
Time T s [M0 L0 T1]
Area A=L x b=L x L=L2 Sq. m (m2) [M0 L2 T0]
Volume L x b x h=L x L x L= L3 m3 ( Cubic meter) [M0 L3 T0]
Mass/Volume
Density Kg/m3 [M1 L-3 T0]
= M1 / L3
Velocity Distance/time= L/T m/s or ms-1 [M0 L1 T-1]

Acceleration Velocity/Time m/s2 or ms-2 [M0 L1 T-2]

=L/T/T = L/T2

Force Mass x acceleration Kg-m/s2 or Newton [M1 L1 T-2]

=M x L/T2
Mass x velocity
Momentum Kg-m/s [M1 L1 T-1]
= M x L/T
Force x time
Impulse Kg-ms-1 [M1 L1 T-1]
=M x L/T2 x T
Force x distance
Work Kg-m2s-2 [M1 L2 T-2]
= M x L/T2 x L
E=mc2 Kgm2s-2 – Joule
Energy [M1 L2 T-2]
= M x L/T2 x L

Pressure P=F/A Kgms-2/m2

=M x L/T2 /L2 [M1 L-1 T-2]
Power P = Work/Time Kgm2/s-3 [M1 L2 T-3]

Application of dimensional analysis

1. It is used to check the correction of the given equation.
2. It is used to convert system of one unit into system of another unit.
3. It is used to derive simple equations.

Limitations of dimensional analysis

1. We cannot derive constants [like 2π] and numbers.
2. We can derive only simple equations which contain L M T.
 3. We cannot derive equations which contains more than three fundamentals physical
quantities and complicated equations.

Measurement
Measurement is an act or the result of quantitative comparison between a predefined standard
and unknown magnitude.

Instruments used to measure accurately are,

 Vernier /Slide Caliper
 Screw gauge/micrometer
 Height gauge (Vernier)
 Internal screw gauge/micrometer
 Thread micrometer
 V-Anvil micrometer
 Bench micrometer
 Taper screw operated internal micrometer
 Bore gauges
 Depth Gauge

Least count of measuring instruments

A smallest distance that can be measured from any instrument is called least count of a
instrument.

Principle of Vernier
It is a secondary scale used on main scale for measuring dimensions of given object accurately
distance between the divisions on main scale.
OR
It is a secondary scale which slides along the main scale. It is used to measure the length, depth, diameter
accurately to any desired fractions of the smallest divisions on the main scale
 A French scientist (1550-1637) PIERCE VERNIER designed a secondary scale on main
scale for measurement of smallest distance between two divisions on main scale and it is called as
Vernier scale.

The length of the Vernier

is, 10VSD=9MSD
1VSD=9MSD/10 or 0.9 MSD

Least count of Vernier

The smallest distance that can be measured by the Vernier scale is called least count of the
Vernier. Least count is measured by the difference of value of 1MSD and1VSD.

i.e, L.C =1MSD – 1VSD ---------------- (1)

L.C =1MSD –
(9MSD/10)

L.C = [1- 9/10] MSD

L.C =1/10 MSD or 0.1MSD
In general, if “n” Vernier scale divisions are equal to (n-1) divisions on the main scale
“n” VSD= (n-1) MSD
VSD= (n-1/n) MSD -----------------------------from equation (1)
L.C = 1 MSD – (n-1/n) MSD
L.C = 1/n MSD Thus L.C is given as
L.C= Value of one MSD/No. of divisions on Vernier.

Measurement of MSR and VSR(CVD)

The end “A” of work piece is placed on a main scale zero and other end “B” touches Vernier
zero, the length of object is little more than “7” MSD as in the main scale. The extra length is nothing
but CB and it is equal to CD-BD (refer fig)

Length= 7MSD + CB Length = 7MSD + [ CD-BD]

Length=7MSD + [6MSD-6VSD] Length =7MSD +6 [1MSD-1VSD]
Length =7MSD +6[1 /10 MSD]
Length = 7.6 MSD

Thus reading corresponding to ‘C’ is called main scale reading (MSR) and at ‘D’ the Vernier
and main scale divisions coincide and number of division coinciding on Vernier is called coinciding
Vernier scale division (CVD).

Then combined reading = MSR + (CVD x LC)

Uses of Vernier caliper

 To measure the length & thickness of objects.
 To measure external and internal diameter of a round object.
  To measure step length both inside and outside.
 To measure accurate value by taking smallest distance between and division on main scale.

Zero Error
In a given instrument if Vernier scale zero exactly
coinciding with main scale zero. Then instrument is said to be No
error. If not, it is said to be Zero error.

Types Zero Error

Negative Zero Error

If the Vernier scale zero is on left hand side of the main scale zero, then error is said to be
Negative Zero Error.

From fig
CVSD= Coinciding Vernier Scale division =5
ZE=-5
ZC=+5
Corrected reading, CR=CVSD x LC
= +5 x 0.1mm
=+ 0.5 mm
Positive Zero error:
If the Vernier scale zero is on right hand side of the main scale zero, then error is said to be
positive error.

From fig
CVSD= Coinciding Vernier Scale division =4 ZE=+4
ZC=-4
Corrected reading, CR= - [CVSD x LC]
= - [4 x 0.1]
= -0.4mm

Total reading
Total reading of the given instrument can be measured by using the below relation.
T. R= MSR + [CVSD x LC]
If there is a zero error
TR= {MSR + [CVSD x LC]} + CR
Where,
CR= CVSD x LC or CR= ZC x LC.
Note:
If the value of L.C decreases, then accuracy of the instrument increases.
i.e. accuracy inversely proportional to L.C.

Screw Gauge or Micrometer

The instruments screw gauge works on the principles of screw and nut. Screw can be moved
forward or backward by giving rotation on screw head. The threads of the screw should be uniform.

Total reading
Total reading of the given instrument can be measured by using the below relation.
T. R= MSR + [CVSD x LC]
If there is a zero error
TR= {MSR + [CVSD x LC]} + CR
Where,
CR= CVSD x LC or CR= ZC x LC.
Note:
If the value of L.C decreases, then accuracy of the instrument increases.
i.e. accuracy inversely proportional to L.C.

Screw Gauge or Micrometer

The instruments screw gauge works on the principles of screw and nut. Screw can be moved
forward or backward by giving rotation on screw head. The threads of the screw should be uniform.

Construction
It consists of ‘U’ shaped frame ABC, one arm of which carries a hallow cylinder E.

A scale in mm is graduated on the cylinder parallel to its axis. This is called pitch scale. A screw ‘F’
works through the cylinder ‘E’
and its ends in the plane face. A
Co-axial sleeve “G’ with a
bevelled edge attached to the
screw head moves over the
cylinder E. The bevelled edge
of the screw is divided into
number of equal parts. This is
called Head scale. The other
arm of ‘U’ shaped frame carries
plane surface “D” opposite to
“F”.

Pitch of a screw
It is the distance between two consecutive threads of a screw is called pitch of a screw

Practically Pitch of a screw is obtained by the relation.

Pitch=Distance moved on pitch scale/Number of rotations given to screw head.
Zero Error
When metallic plugs of a screw gauge contact with each other if head scale zero coinciding
with pitch line then instrument is said to be no error. If not it is said to be zero error.
ZE=0, Zc=0 ------------fig (a)

Types of Zero error

Negative Zero error

If the head scale zero is above the pith line, then error is said to be negative zero error and
zero correction is positive as shown in fig(c)

ZE= -4(-ve) ZC=+4(+ve)

Positive Zero error
If the head scale zero is below the pith line, then error is said to be positive and zero correction is
negative as shown in fig(b).
ZE= (+2) +ve ZC = (-2) -ve

Least Count (L.C)

The smallest distance that can be measured by the screw gauge is called least count of screw
gauge.
Least count of screw gauge is measured by the relation,
L.C= Pitch/ No. Of Head scale divisions.

Where,
Pitch=Distance moved on pitch scale/Number of rotation given to the head scale.

Total Reading (T.R)

The dimensions [Diameter, Thick] of a given object can be calculated by using the following
relation.
T. R=PSR+{[HSD+ZC] x LC}
Uses of Screw gauge
It is used to measure thick and diameter of small objects like thin metal sheet, thin wire etc.
It is used to measure dimension accurately of given objects compared to scale calipers, because
Least Count of screw gauge is small compared to slide calipers.

PROBLEMS
1) The main scale is divided into 1/2 mm. The length of the Vernier is attached to it is 12 mm long
& is divided into 25 equal parts. Calculate the value of 1 VSD & Least count of Vernier.
Given data: 1MSD = 1/2mm =0.5 mm, Total VSD = 25 Divisions i.e.,
25 VSD = 12 mm
1VSD = 12/25 mm I VSD = 0.48 mm

Least Count = 1MSD-1VSD

= 0.5- 0.48
L.C=0.02 mm

2) A Vernier has 10 divisions & they are equal to 9 divisions on main scale in length. Main scale
being graduated in mm. While measuring the diameter of a cylinder the following observations
are made.
MSR = 2.3 cm, VSD =5, Zero Error= -4, Total Reading =? Least count =? Actual Reading
=?
Given Data: MSR = 2.3cm, VSD =CVSD=5, Zero Error= -4, Zero Correction =+4, Total
Reading =? Least count =? Actual Reading =?

To find Least count Total Reading

L.C= 1msd- 1vsd
T.R=MSR+ {CVSD x LC}
L.C =1msd-(9/10) MSD T.R = 2.3+ {5 x 0.01}
L.C =(1-9/10) MSD T.R =2.3+0.05
T.R =2.35 cm
L.C=0.1mm or 0.01cm

Correction Reading, Actual Reading, A. R= TR±CR

C. R= ZC x LC =2.35+0.04
C.R =+4 x 0.01 A.R = 2.39 cm

C.R = 0.04 cm

3) A screw gauge has a pitch of ½ mm & 50 division on its sleeve. At the zero setting the reading
was found to be +5 divisions on the head scale while gripping a wire pitch scale reading was 1.5
mm & 17 divisions on the head scale. What is the diameter of the wire?

Given data:
Pitch= ½ mm = 0.5 mm,
Number of HSD =50 Div,
ZE= +5, ZC= -5, PSR= 1.5 mm, HSD = 17 div

Least count, L.C= Pitch / Number of HSD

 L.C = 0.5/50
L.C =0.01 mm
Dia if wire, T.R= PSR+[HSD +ZC] x LC
T.R =1.5+{[17+(-5)] x 0.01}
T.R =1.5+{[12] x 0.01}
T.R =1.5+0.12 T.R=1.62 mm

4) In measuring the diameter of a wire using a vernier caliper, the zero of vernier is found to be
between 3.65 cm & 3.7 cm and the 5th vernier division coincides with the main scale division. If
the least count of vernier is 0.05mm,what is diameter of wire?

Given data:
PSR = 3.65cm = 36.5 mm, LC = 0.05cm = 0.005mm, CVSD = 5th Div. ZE=0, ZC = 0

Diameter of wire,
Total reading, TR= PSR+[HSD +ZC] x LC
TR =36.5+[5+0]x0.005 TR =36.5+[5 x 0.005]
TR =36.5+0.025 TR =36.675mm

EXERCISES

I. Fill in The Blanks

a) Smallest distance measured by any instrument is called..................
b) Least count of Vernier Caliper......................
c) Least count of Screw Gauge...........
d) If Zero error is +5 then Zero correction is..............
e) Distance between two consecutive threads is.................
II. Multiple Choice Questions
a) SI unit of Area is
a) mm3 b) mm c) mm2 d) mm-2
b) SI unit of Density is
a) kg/m3 b) mm c) kg/mm2 d) kg/m-3
c) If the Vernier scale zero is on left hand side of the main scale zero, then error is
a) Error
b) Positive zero error c) Negative zero error d) None of these
III. Answer the following Questions
a) Define fundamental unit? With examples.
b) Define derived unit? With examples.
c) Explain SI system
d) Write the Seven basic physical Quantities.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. Explain Vernier caliper with neat diagram and name its parts.

2. Define physical quantities. Write the seven basic quantities.

3. List the system of units.

4. Define unit. Also explain types of unit.

5. Write the rules of writing SI unit.

6. What is SI system? Mention the fundamental unit of SI system

7. Write the dimensional equations for Area, Velocity, Force and Work.

8. Draw neat sketch of micrometer screw gauge and label its parts.

9. State the uses of Vernier Calipers

10. A main Scale is divided in to 1/2 mm. The length of vernier attached to it is 2mm and is divided in to 25
equal parts. Calculate the value of 1VSD and also the least count of the vernier.

11. A vernier has 10 divisions & they are equal to 9 divisions on the main scale in length. Main scale is
graduated in mm. While measuring the diameter of a cylinder, the observations being made are:
MSR=2.3cm, VSD=5, ZE= -4. Calculate TR (Total reading), Least count & Actual reading