UNIT 2

Head
Read the text below and answer the questions

Inside the head is the brain, which is responsible for thinking. The top of
a person's scalp is covered with hair. Beneath the hairline at the front of
the face is the forehead. Underneath the forehead are the eyes for
seeing, the nose for smelling, and the mouth for eating. On the outside
of the mouth are the lips, and on the inside of the mouth are the teeth
for biting and the tongue for tasting. Food is swallowed down the
throat. At the sides of the face are the cheeks and at the sides of the
head are the ears for hearing. At the bottom of a person's face is the
chin. The jaw is located on the inside of the cheeks and chin. The neck
is what attaches the head to the upper body.

1. Where is the brain?

 __________________________________________________________
_________

2. Where is the forehead?

___________________________________________________________
________

3. Where are the lips?

__________________________________________________________________

4. What can you do with your teeth?

____________________________________________________________
______

5. Where are the ears?

____________________________________________________________
______

6. Where is the chin located?

________________________________________________________
_____

7. Where is the jaw located?

_________________________________________________________________

NOUNS IN ENGLISH

What is a Noun?

The simplest definition of a noun is a thing and nouns are the basic building blocks
of sentences. These things can represent a person, animal, place, idea, emotion –
almost anything that you can think of. Dog, Sam, we, love, phone, Chicago,
courage and spaceship are all nouns.

Noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification:

The boy and girl were holding hands as they crossed the bridge to on the way to
town.

I love watching my cat play with the pink yarn.

It is raining! Everyone, grab your umbrella and rain hat and watch out for the
puddles

Proper Nouns

They name specific one-of-a-kind items, and they begin with capital letters, no
matter where they occur within a sentence.

Types of Nouns in English

Nouns are among the most important words in the English language:

Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are those referring to ideas, concepts, emotions, and other “things”
you can’t physically interact with. You can’t see, taste, touch, smell, or hear
something named with an abstract noun. Some abstract noun examples are
included in the following sentences.

Success seems to come easily to certain people.

His hatred of people smoking indoors is legendary.

She has an incredible love for nature.

This is of great importance.

He received an award for his bravery.

Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a word that refers to a group. It can be either singular or plural,
but is usually used in the singular. Some collective noun examples are included in
the following sentences.

Our team is enjoying an unbroken winning streak.

There’s a pack of hyenas outside.

Watch out for that swarm of bees.

You haven’t lived until you’ve seen a herd of wild horses.

Our class graduates two years from now.

Common Nouns

Common nouns are used to refer to general things rather than specific examples.
Common nouns are not normally capitalized unless they are used as part of a
proper name or are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some common noun
examples are included in the following sentences.

Be sure to pick a top university.

Stack those boxes carefully.

Would you like a cookie with your coffee?

People are strange.

My dog won’t stop barking.

Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns are words used for actual things you can touch, see, taste, feel,
and hear – things you interact with every day. Notice that concrete nouns can also
be countable, uncountable, common, proper, and collective nouns. Some
concrete noun examples are included in the following sentences.

Please remember to buy oranges.

Have a seat in that chair.

Count Nouns:

These are the nouns that can be counted.

table, chair, student, computer, book, dog etc.

Non-count nouns:

These are the nouns that cannot be counted.

water, tea, rice, glass, iron etc.

Use of a, an or x:

A: We use use “a” before those singular count nouns that start with a consonant
sound. a table, a student, a book etc.

An: We use “an before those singular count nouns that start with a vowel sound.
an orange, an umbrella, an hour etc.

X: We don’t use a or an before plural or non-count nouns.

Tables, chairs, students etc

Water, sugar, chocolate etc.

Plural Nouns
Plural nouns are words used to indicate that there is more than one person,
animal, place, thing, or idea. The difference between singular and plural nouns is
simple once you know what to look for.
The difference between singular and plural nouns is easy to spot. When a noun
indicates one only, it is a singular noun. When a noun indicates more than one, it is
plural.

The following sentences contain SINGULAR NOUNS examples.

 The boy had a baseball in his hand.

 My horse prefers to wear an English saddle.
 That cat never seems to tire of jumping in and out of the box.
 You stole my idea and didn’t give me any credit.
 Your mom is going to be upset about that broken lamp.
 It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you give it plenty of water.
 I can’t believe you let your dog stick his head out the window while you
drive.

The following sentences contain PLURAL NOUN examples.

 The boys were throwing baseballs back and forth between bases.
 Our horses are much happier wearing lightweight English saddles.
 Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one another in and out of those
boxes.
 You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any credit.
 Our moms are going to be upset that we stayed out all night going to
parties.
 It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as you provide them with plenty of
water.
 I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb all over the seats while you are
driving.
 PLURAL FORM OF NOUNS
CASE DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE EXAMPLE
THE RULE
General rule The plural form of NOUN + “-S” minute - minutes
most nouns is created
simply by adding the
letter “s” to the end of
the word.
When nouns The plural is formed NOUN + “- church - churches
end in by adding “es” ES” box -boxes

-ch, -x, -s, - index -= indexes ( also

sh, -z or s- indices)
like sounds
gas - gases

bush - bushes

ass -asses

quiz – quizzes
Nouns ending When they are NOUN + “-ES” potato - potatoes
in “o” preceded by a
consonant. tomato – tomatoes

volcano - volcanoes

Except: newly created

words or words with
NOUN + “-S” photo - photos
Spanish or Italian
origin.
piano - pianos
portico - porticos
Noun ending When they are NOUN – “Y” +”
in “y” preceded by a IES”
consonant, they drop party - parties

the “y” and add “ies” lady - ladies

When they are

preceded by a
 VOWEL, add a “s” NOUN + “-S”

Boy - boys

Toy - toys

Ray – rays

Noun ending Drop the “f” or “fe” and NOUN – “F” + calf – calves
in “f” or “fe” add “ves” VES
half - halves

wolf - wolves

wife – wives
NOUN – “FE” +
VES
Nouns ending Drop the “-is” and add NOUN – IS +
in “is” “-es” ES
crisis - crises

hypothesis - hypotheses
oasis - oases

Irregular Some nouns change ODD PLURAL child -children

plural their structure to form FORM
their plural form. ox – oxen

man – men

woman - women

person -people

foot - feet

tooth - teeth

mouse - mice
 louse - lice
Identical Some nouns have NO CHANGE aircraft - aircraft
singular and
plural form identical plural and fish - fish
singular forms,
although they are still sheep - sheep
considered to have a deer - deer
species - species
plural form.
headquarters - headquarters
Collective These nouns exist ONLY cattle scissors
words or only in the plural form PLURAL trousers tweezers
nouns and take a plural verb. FORM congratulations
associated pajamas
with two
parts.
Compound In compound nouns MAIN NOUN + court martial - courts martial
nouns the plural ending is -S son-in-law - sons-in-law
usually added to the passer-by - passers-by
main noun.
Uncountable Uncountable nouns NO PLURAL advice information
noun on the other hand FORM luggage
have no plural form
and take a singular headquarters - headquarters
verb (is / was ...). news - news

CASE DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE EXAMPLE

RULE
 Latin or Greek These nouns maintain NOUN – US + I nucleus
origin their Latin or Greek form = nuclei
in the plural. syllabus
=
syllabi
focus =
foci
fungus
= fungi

cactus = cacti
(cactuses is
acceptable)
NOUN – ON + A

phenomenon =
phenomena

NOUN - UM + A criterion = criteria

datum = data

NOUN + E medium= media

alumna = alumnae
trachea=tracheae

EXERCISES

A. Write the s plural form of the following words.

1. thesis ____________ 11. watch ______________

2. stimulus ____________ 12. mountain ______________

3. alumnus ____________ 13. louse ______________

4. loaf ____________ 14. family ______________

5. medium ____________ 15. shelf ______________

6. crisis ____________ 16. cloud ______________

7. veto ____________ 17. area ______________

8. fireman ____________ 18. photo ______________

9. diagnosis ____________ 19. home ______________

10. ox ____________ 20. logo _______________

B. Next to each word in the list, write correctly the plural for that word. If
that word cannot be pluralized because it's a non-count noun, write the letter
X.

1. man ______________ 16. dancing ______________

2. furniture ______________ 17. 1990 ______________

3. experience ______________ 18. aluminum ______________

4. Kennedy ______________ 19. fax ______________

5. ski ______________ 20. roof ______________

6. gas ______________ 21. fish ______________

7. box ______________ 22. child ______________

8. peace ______________ 23. difficulty _____________

9. cactus ______________ 24. knowledge ______________

10. criterion ______________ 25. goose ______________

11. baby ______________ 26. video _____________

12. memo ______________ 27. curriculum ______________

13. work ______________ 28. biology ______________

14. self ______________ 29. URL ______________

15. applause ______________ 30. dish _____________

C. Write the plural form of the following medical nouns.

1. mouth ______________

2. pharynx ______________

3. anus ______________

4. trachea ______________

5. pancreas ______________

6. enzyme ______________

7. duodenum ______________

8. cecum ______________

9. rectum ______________

10. bronchus ______________

D. Reading Comprehension

Human Body

Your heart is really a muscle. It's located a little to the left of the middle of your
chest, and it's about the size of your fist. There are lots of muscles all over your
body - in your arms, in your legs, in your back, even in your behind. But this muscle
is special because of what it does - the heart sends blood around your body. The
blood provides your body with the oxygen and nutrients it needs. It also carries
away the waste that your body has to get rid of.

Your heart is sort of like a pump, or two pumps in one. The right side of your heart
receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart
does the exact opposite: it receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the
body. By the time you're grown up, your heart will be beating (pumping) about 70
times a minute.

How does the heart beat? Before each beat, your heart fills with blood. Then it
contracts to squirt the blood along. When something contracts, it squeezes tighter -
try squeezing your hand into a fist. That's sort of like what your heart does so it can
squirt out the blood. Your heart does this all day and all night, all the time. Every
day, an adult heart pumps 2,000 gallons (7,500 liters) of recycled blood by filling
and contracting. The heart is one tough worker!

1. Where is your heart located?

__________________________________________________________________

2. Where else can you find muscles in your body besides the heart?

__________________________________________________________________

3. Why do we need a heart?

__________________________________________________________________
______

4. Which organ(s) directly works with the heart?

__________________________________________________________________
______

E. Choose one or more of the above facilities for each of the following
circumstances and justify the choice(s).

Where Will You Go? Differentiate among the following health facilities and their
services for your students. Tell why a person might choose to use each one.
Include very general information about cost, convenience, insurance, and critical
nature of the problem.

Emergency Room County Health Department

Doctor’s Office Walk-in Clinic

• It is Saturday and your child has a very high fever. You can go to
____________.

• You need a routine physical. You can call _____________.

• Your spouse breaks a leg. You can go to ____________.

• Your child needs a vaccination. You can call______________.

• You have a bad cut that won’t stop bleeding. It probably needs stitches.
You can go to ___________.

• You have had a cold/flu symptoms for 3 to 4 days. You can call
______________.

• You are having a baby – now! You can ________________.

• You are bothered by allergies. You can call _________________.

Calling the Doctor’s Office

Receptionist: Good morning, Dr. Smith’s office.

Patient: Good morning, my name is________ and I would like to make

an appointment.
 Receptionist: What are your symptoms?

Patient: My stomach hurts. I am vomiting, and I also have diarrhea.

Receptionist: How long have you felt this way?

Patient: For the past twenty-four hours.

Receptionist: Okay, Dr. Smith has an appointment open at 10:00 this morning. Will that
work for you?

Patient: Yes, I will be there at 10:00.

Receptionist: Be sure to bring your insurance card.

F. In this table there are 38 words for parts of the body and six categories.
Decide which category or categories each part belongs to. The first one has
been done for you as an example.
 READING COMPREHENSION

Read the following text and answer the questions below.

Human Digestive System

How does food get digested?

Digestion involves mechanical as well as chemical changes in the food taken.

Mechanical alteration is brought about by teeth, grinding organs and muscular
contraction of stomach and intestinal walls. Breaking food into small pieces
increases the surface area exposed to the enzymes of digestive juices.

INTRODUCTION OF FOOD DIGESTION PROCESS

Chemical changes, whether in protozoans or in animals from sponges to man,

involve cleaving of complex, insoluble macro molecules into simpler, soluble sub
units, and are brought about by the action of enzyme.
Food Digestion Process

Food Intake: Different organisms obtain food in different ways but carry out
similar reactions. To take food, protozoans use pseudopodia, flagella or cilia;
sponges and muscles use a current of water; hydra uses tentacles beset with
stinging cells; planarians and earthworms use a muscular pharynx; flukes and
leeches use oral sucker.

Digestive System and process: Parts of the body concerned with the uptake
and digestion of food and elimination of indigestible remains from the digestive
system, also called elementary system. The digestive system consists of two
sets of organs:

Alimentary canal: It is a tube comprising many specialized organs. It provides

and helps in the process of:

(i)An inlet, the mouth, to ingest food

(ii) A cavity, the lumen, where food is digested

(iii) A surface for the absorption of digested food

(iv) A space where indigestible remains are changed in to feces

(v)An outlet the anus for elimination of feces.

Digestive glands and their function in the process: These are the
structures associated with the different regions of the alimentary canal. They
sent into the digestive track their secretions which contains enzyme and other
materials to help in the digestion of food. Most of the alimentary canal and
certain digestive glands are supported and held in place by mesenteries, the
double sheets of peritoneum with a layer of connective tissues in between.

Summary for Food Digestion Process

The digestive system serves three major functions are:

1. Nutrition: The digestive track primarily serves to provide food to the

tissues to the body.

2. Breathing: The interior part of the alimentary canal also plays a role in
respiration in the chordates.
 3. Excretion: The digestive system brings about sum excretion too.
Excretion is the elimination of unwanted materials from the body.

QUESTIONS

1. Does digestion only involve mechanical changes?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________

2. Why are enzymes important during the digestion process?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________

3. Which is the final step of the digestion process?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________

4. How is the alimentary canal supported?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________

2. Match and write the letters next to the correct numbers

1. Cleave ______ a) excrement

2. Intake ______ b) the cavity of a tubular organ or part

3. Lumen _____ c) tube

4. Feces _____ d) the amount taken in

5. Canal _____ e) divide

The Digestive System breaks down and digests the food to provide energy
necessary to sustain life. It consists of a chain of well-connected organs. The
process of digestion starts in the mouth where food is ground into smaller pieces
and transferred to other digestive organs that break apart the complex molecules
into simple ones so that they may be properly absorbed into the bloodstream.
These nutrients then move through the bloodstream that transports them to the
body cells where they are processed to provide the body with energy needed for
repair and growth. The Digestive System distinguishes animals from plants, which
do not have such system. Plants do not take in food from foreign sources like
animals do. Rather they utilize sunlight to make simple sugar by converting carbon
dioxide and water through the process of photosynthesis. On the contrary, animals
have to eat organic food from plant or animal sources to meet their energy
requirements.

The digestive system has two phases of digestion known as the mechanical phase
and chemical phase. The tongue, teeth and other structures in the mouth grind the
large chunks of food into smaller pieces. This phase is called the mechanical
phase. The food is then pushed towards the stomach where most of the chemical
phase takes place. During this phase, the complex molecules of the food are
broken down into simple ones with the help of certain enzymes. There are special
glands in the body that secrete these enzymes. The digestive tract or the
alimentary canal is a long tube-like structure that constitutes the Digestive System.
The mouth is the starting point of this tract through which food is eaten up and the
anus is the culminating point which excretes the waste products. The walls of this
alimentary canal are lined with muscles that help the food move along the tract.
Majority of the organs that take part in digestion are part of the digestive tract
except for the liver and pancreas. These organs secrete certain juices which play
an important role in the chemical digestion. As these organs are not located inside
the alimentary canal, they are linked with this tract through tube-like structures
called ducts. The total length of a stretched out alimentary tract of an adult human
being is nearly 20 to 30 feet (6 - 9 m).

Both the chemical and mechanical digestions start in the mouth of human beings.
The teeth cut and grind the food into small pieces with the help of the tongue. The
inner walls of the cheeks are lined with special glands that produce mucus, which
lubricates the food. This whole process changes the food into a wet, soft mass.
There are several ducts that drain saliva that is secreted by three pairs of salivary
glands. The enzymes present in the saliva called ptyalin hydrolyze starch; kind of a
carbohydrate produced by plants. This soft, ground mass known as bolus is
pushed down into the pharynx. The pharynx serves as a passage that allows food
as well as air to pass through. When food is eaten up, the epiglottis covers the
trachea which prohibits the food from entering the windpipe. Numerous gastric
glands present in the stomach secrete pepsin, mucin and hydrochloric acid that
help digest the food in the stomach. Most of the digestion takes place in the small
intestine. The necessary elements are absorbed whereas the indigestible food
pass through the large intestine to be excreted through the anus.

ACTIVITIES

A. Complete the sentences with these expressions/words from the reading

passage. Make necessary grammatical changes. Then go back and write
their meaning in the right column. (pair work)

Expressions Meanings
(be) absorbed into
move through
push towards
Enzyme
take in
break apart
Secrete
move along
(be) lined with
pass through

1. The blood ___________________ the human body to provide oxygen to all

organs.
2. The tongue _________ the food _____________ the teeth for grinding.
 3. During the process of oxygenation, the blood ___________________ the
lungs.

4. Carbohydrates ________________ the body very quickly.

5. Certain ______________ are needed to digest food.
6. The human stomach ______________ pepsin to digest food.
7. Food _________________ the walls of the esophagus and enters the
stomach for digestion.
8. The human tongue ____________________ the taste cells.
9. Chemical reactions _______________ complex molecules into simple
ones.
10. Human beings have to __________________ food to get energy.

B. Read the passage and circle the appropriate answer. Circle a,

b, c, or d. (group work)

1.______ molecules are broken down to be absorbed into the blood stream.

a. Simple b. Small c. Large d. All a, b, & c

2. The body cells use simple molecules for _______.

a. growth b. energy c. repair d. all a, b, & c

3. Plants ____- the digestive system.

a. may have b. have c. don’t have d. should have

4.______ animals, plants produce their own food by photosynthesis.

a. Like b. Unlike c. Similar to d. In addition to

5. The mechanical phase _____ the chemical phase.

a. alters b. completes c. follows d. precedes

6. Digestion is a ____ process.

a. single-phased b. bi-phased c. tri-phased d. multi-phased

7. Ptyalin means ______.

a. saliva b. hydrolyze c. starch d. enzyme

8. The liver and pancreas are _____ digestive organs.

a. supporting b. not important c. the most important d. basic

9. The chemical and mechanical digestion _____ occur(s) in mouth.

a. only b. does not c. also d. may

10. The windpipe is situated next to the _______.

a. epiglottis b. bolus c. mouth d. pharynx

C. Read the passage and write “T” for true statements and “F” for
false statement. Correct the false statements and write them again
on the lines given below. ( pair work)

1. The Digestive system digests a series of connected organs. ______

2. The blood stream uses the simple molecules for growth, repair and
energy.______

3. Plants use photosynthesis in which they convert energy into simple sugar. ____

4. Enzymes are used in the chemical phase of digestion. ______

5. The Digestive tract is situated next to the alimentary canal. ______

6. The muscles of the digestive tract push the food forward. _______

7. The total length of the stretched alimentary canal of an adult is between 6 to 9

meters. _______

8. The teeth and tongue convert the food into a soft mass. ______
9. Hydrolyze is a carbohydrate manufactured by green plants. ______

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

_________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

_____________________________

Main Structures of the Digestive System

The digestive tract is a long continuous tube that starts with the mouth and ends
with the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
and large intestine. The tongue and teeth located in the mouth are accessory
structures. The salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, and pancreas are the other
accessory organs of the digestive system that secretes digestive enzymes into the
digestive tract that are involved in the process of digestion.
Mouth: The mouth contains tongue and teeth. With the help of these the food is
chewed (broken into tiny pieces) and mixes with saliva (secreted by salivary
glands)

Pharynx: Is a funnel shaped opening through which the food from mouth passes to
esophagus.

Esophagus: Is a long tubular structure that with the help of peristalsis movement
passes food to the stomach.

Stomach: A large sac-like structure that holds the food for a while where it gets
mixed with the hydrochloric acid and gastric juice.

Small intestine: It is a long muscular tube that is divisible into the duodenum, the
jejunum, and ileum. Secretions of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are passed into
the small intestine, where the major part of the digestion occurs.

Large intestine: Minor part of the digestion occurs in large intestine and is divisible
into cecum, colon, and rectum. Reabsorption of water and absorption of food
material takes place in large intestine.

Anus: The indigested food is excreted out through anus.

Liver: Liver is the largest organ of the human body and it is involved in synthesis
and secretion of bile that plays a role in emulsification of fats. Liver secreted from
live is stored in gallbladder, from which it flows into small intestine.

Pancreas: Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice.