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2m DAA

The document covers fundamental concepts of algorithms, including how to measure running time, define time complexity, and write algorithms. It discusses various problem-solving techniques such as dynamic programming, greedy methods, and backtracking, along with specific problems like the Knapsack Problem and graph algorithms. Additionally, it explores complexity classes, NP problems, and the significance of concepts like NP-completeness and tractability.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
5 views11 pages

2m DAA

The document covers fundamental concepts of algorithms, including how to measure running time, define time complexity, and write algorithms. It discusses various problem-solving techniques such as dynamic programming, greedy methods, and backtracking, along with specific problems like the Knapsack Problem and graph algorithms. Additionally, it explores complexity classes, NP problems, and the significance of concepts like NP-completeness and tractability.
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CO1: Basic Concepts of Algorithms

1. How to measure the algorithm running time?


○ Count basic operations like comparisons or additions.
○ Express as a function of input size (nnn).
○ Use Big-O, Big-Θ\ThetaΘ, and Big-Ω\OmegaΩ notations.
○ Analyze for best, worst, and average cases.
2. Define best, worst, and average time complexity.
○ Best Case: Minimum time required for input.
○ Worst Case: Maximum time taken for input.
○ Average Case: Expected time for typical inputs.
○ All expressed using Big-O notation.
3. List the steps to write an algorithm.
○ Understand the problem requirements.
○ Define input and output clearly.
○ Outline step-by-step procedures.
○ Test for correctness and refine.
4. What are the types of problems solved using algorithms?
○ Searching and sorting problems.
○ Optimization and decision-making problems.
○ Graph and numerical computations.
○ Machine learning and data analysis tasks.
5. What are the common techniques for proving algorithm correctness?
○ Use mathematical induction.
○ Apply proof by contradiction.
○ Verify loop invariants.
○ Test cases and simulations.
6. What is order of growth? Compare n!n!n! and 2n2^n2n.
○ Measures runtime growth with input size.
○ n!n!n! grows faster than 2n2^n2n.
○ Factorial increases super-exponentially.
○ Important for analyzing scalability.
7. Differentiate between best, average, and worst-case efficiency.
○ Best Case: Ideal and fastest scenario.
○ Average Case: Expected runtime in practice.
○ Worst Case: Guarantees for all conditions.
○ Used for comprehensive performance analysis.
8. Define recursion tree algorithm.
○ Visual representation of recursive calls.
○ Breaks problems into subproblems.
○ Helps analyze divide-and-conquer complexity.
○ Nodes represent function calls and costs.
9. Define recurrence relation.
○ Represents a problem in terms of smaller subproblems.
○ Found in divide-and-conquer approaches.
○ Solved using substitution or Master’s theorem.
○ Example: T(n)=2T(n/2)+nT(n) = 2T(n/2) + nT(n)=2T(n/2)+n.
10. What is a combinatorial problem?
○ Finding arrangements or combinations of objects.
○ Examples include permutations and combinations.
○ Often involve constraints to satisfy.
○ Examples: Traveling Salesman, graph coloring.
11. What is the substitution method?
○ Solves recurrence by guessing the solution.
○ Proves the solution using induction.
○ Simplifies expressions recursively.
○ Common in divide-and-conquer algorithms.
12. State Master’s Theorem.
○ Used for solving divide-and-conquer recurrences.
○ Form: T(n)=aT(n/b)+f(n)T(n) = aT(n/b) + f(n)T(n)=aT(n/b)+f(n).
○ Compares f(n)f(n)f(n) with nlog⁡ban^{\log_b{a}}nlogb​a.
○ Determines the dominant term for complexity.
13. What is the method of backward substitution?
○ Substitute recurrence terms repeatedly.
○ Reduce to base case for pattern recognition.
○ Reveals general formula for the solution.
○ Works well for simple recurrence relations.
14. Differentiate feasible and optimal solutions.
○ Feasible: Satisfies all problem constraints.
○ Optimal: Best solution among feasible ones.
○ Depends on objective function.
○ Example: Shortest path, minimum cost.
15. What is meant by Algorithmics?
○ Study of algorithm design and analysis.
○ Focuses on correctness and efficiency.
○ Applications in real-world problem-solving.
○ Includes optimization and complexity studies.

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CO2: Problem-Solving and Algorithm Design

1. Define the Assignment Problem.


○ Assign tasks to agents to minimize cost or maximize efficiency.
○ Represented as a cost matrix.
○ Solved using algorithms like Hungarian method.
○ Applications in resource allocation.
2. Define the term exhaustive search.
○ Also called brute force.
○ Explores all possible solutions.
○ Guarantees finding the optimal solution.
○ Computationally expensive for large inputs.
3. What is the Knapsack Problem?
○ Select items with given weights and values to maximize value.
○ Subject to a weight capacity limit.
○ Solved using dynamic programming or greedy methods.
○ Variants include 0/1 and fractional knapsack.
4. State the Principle of Optimality.
○ An optimal solution contains optimal subsolutions.
○ Basis for dynamic programming algorithms.
○ Used in problems like shortest paths and knapsack.
○ Ensures consistent decision-making at each stage.
5. What is the Greedy Method?
○ Makes locally optimal choices at each step.
○ Aims to find global optimum.
○ Suitable for problems like Kruskal’s and Prim’s algorithms.
○ Does not guarantee optimality in all cases.
6. Show the general procedure of dynamic programming.
○ Divide the problem into overlapping subproblems.
○ Solve and store subproblem results in a table.
○ Use stored values to compute the solution.
○ Avoid redundant computations.
7. State the brute force approach.
○ Tries all possible solutions.
○ Ensures finding the correct solution.
○ Inefficient for large problems.
○ Example: Substring search or traveling salesman.
8. Define backtracking.
○ Explores all solutions by building candidates incrementally.
○ Abandons candidates that fail constraints.
○ Suitable for combinatorial problems like N-Queens.
○ Avoids exhaustive exploration of invalid solutions.
9. Show the application for Knapsack Problem.
○ Used in resource allocation.
○ Applications in finance, logistics, and cryptography.
○ Optimize weight/value constraints in real-world problems.
○ Example: Packing items in a shipping container.
10. What is Divide and Conquer method?
○ Divides the problem into smaller subproblems.
○ Solves subproblems recursively.
○ Combines solutions for the final result.
○ Example: Merge Sort, Quick Sort.
11. Define Branch and Bound Algorithm.
○ Solves optimization problems by partitioning solution space.
○ Prunes non-promising branches using bounds.
○ Used for problems like Knapsack and TSP.
○ Ensures finding the optimal solution.
12. What is a state space graph?
○ Represents all possible states of a problem.
○ Nodes are states, edges are transitions.
○ Used in search algorithms like BFS/DFS.
○ Helps visualize problem-solving paths.
13. What is the advantage of a recursive approach over an iterative approach?
○ Simplifies complex problems like divide-and-conquer.
○ Provides cleaner and easier-to-understand code.
○ Suitable for problems with overlapping subproblems.
○ Can lead to higher memory usage due to call stacks.
14. Example of brute force algorithm and steps:
○ Problem: Substring search.
○ Compare the substring at each position in the string.
○ If matched, return the position.
○ Continue until the substring is found or the string ends.
15. How brute force finds a substring within a string?
○ Starts at each position of the main string.
○ Compares the substring character by character.
○ Stops when a match is found or the search ends.
○ Time complexity: O(nm)O(nm)O(nm), where nnn and mmm are string lengths.

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CO3: Graphs and Search Algorithms


1. Define the single-source shortest path problem.
○ Find shortest paths from a single source vertex to all others.
○ Common algorithms: Dijkstra’s and Bellman-Ford.
○ Used in network routing and transportation.
○ Handles weighted and unweighted graphs.
2. Define Depth First Search (DFS).
○ Explores as far as possible along each branch before backtracking.
○ Uses a stack (explicit or recursive).
○ Suitable for pathfinding and cycle detection.
○ Operates in O(V+E)O(V+E)O(V+E), where VVV is vertices and EEE is edges.
3. Write down the steps involved in DFS.
○ Start from the source vertex.
○ Visit an unvisited adjacent vertex and mark it visited.
○ Repeat recursively for all connected vertices.
○ Backtrack when no unvisited vertex is found.
4. Define Graph.
○ A set of vertices (nodes) connected by edges (links).
○ Can be directed or undirected.
○ Represented using adjacency matrix or list.
○ Examples: Social networks, roadmaps.
5. What is a Weighted graph and undirected graph?
○ Weighted graph: Edges have weights or costs.
○ Undirected graph: Edges have no direction.
○ Weighted graphs used for shortest paths.
○ Undirected graphs common in undirected relationships.
6. What does Floyd’s algorithm do?
○ Finds all pairs shortest paths in a weighted graph.
○ Handles negative weights (no negative cycles).
○ Uses dynamic programming with O(V3)O(V^3)O(V3) complexity.
○ Suitable for dense graphs.
7. What is the use of Dijkstra’s Algorithm?
○ Finds shortest paths from a source to all vertices.
○ Works with non-negative edge weights.
○ Efficient with a priority queue (O((V+E)log⁡V)O((V+E) \log V)O((V+E)logV)).
○ Applications: GPS navigation, network routing.
8. Differentiate BFS and DFS.
○ BFS: Explores level by level; uses a queue.
○ DFS: Explores deeply along branches; uses a stack.
○ BFS finds shortest paths in unweighted graphs.
○ DFS is better for cycle and connectivity detection.
9. Define Adjacency List.
○ Graph representation where each vertex stores its neighbors.
○ Space-efficient for sparse graphs.
○ Easier to traverse connected nodes.
○ Preferred over adjacency matrix for large graphs.
10. List the two important key points of DFS.
○ Recursively explores as far as possible along branches.
○ Uses backtracking to ensure all vertices are visited.
11. Write down the steps involved in BFS.
○ Start at the source vertex and mark it visited.
○ Add it to a queue.
○ Dequeue a vertex, visit all unvisited neighbors, and enqueue them.
○ Repeat until the queue is empty.
12. What do you mean by graph traversals?
○ Systematic visiting of all vertices in a graph.
○ Common types: BFS and DFS.
○ Used for search, connectivity, and cycle detection.
○ Helps in solving shortest paths and spanning trees.
13. Define Topological Sorting.
○ Linear ordering of vertices in a directed acyclic graph (DAG).
○ Each vertex appears before its dependent vertices.
○ Used in scheduling tasks with dependencies.
○ Implemented using DFS or Kahn’s algorithm.
14. What is Minimum Cost Spanning Tree?
○ A tree that connects all vertices with the minimum edge cost.
○ Does not form cycles.
○ Algorithms: Kruskal’s and Prim’s.
○ Applications: Network design, road construction.
15. What is meant by Network Flow Algorithm?
○ Solves flow problems like maximum flow in a network.
○ Uses residual graphs and augmenting paths.
○ Algorithms: Ford-Fulkerson and Edmonds-Karp.
○ Applications: Traffic, data flow in networks.

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CO5: Complexity Classes and NP Problems

1. List some examples of P and NP problems.


○ P Problems: Sorting (e.g., Merge Sort), Shortest Path (Dijkstra's Algorithm).
○ NP Problems: Traveling Salesman Problem, Knapsack Problem.
○ P problems are solvable in polynomial time.
○ NP problems have solutions verifiable in polynomial time.
2. Define NP Completeness and NP Hard.
○ NP-Complete: Problems that are in NP and as hard as any NP problem.
○ NP-Hard: Problems that are at least as hard as NP problems but may not belong
to NP.
○ Examples: NP-Complete – SAT, NP-Hard – Halting Problem.
○ All NP-Complete problems can be reduced to each other.
3. Difference between polynomial-time and exponential time.
○ Polynomial-Time: Solvable in O(nk)O(n^k)O(nk), efficient for large inputs.
○ Exponential-Time: Solvable in O(2n)O(2^n)O(2n), impractical for large inputs.
○ Polynomial-time algorithms are feasible; exponential ones are not.
○ Examples: Sorting (polynomial), TSP (exponential).
4. What are tractable and non-tractable problems?
○ Tractable: Solvable in polynomial time (e.g., Sorting).
○ Non-Tractable: Require super-polynomial time (e.g., TSP).
○ Tractable problems are practical for computation.
○ Non-tractable problems often need approximations.
5. Compare class P and class NP.
○ P: Problems solvable in polynomial time.
○ NP: Solutions verifiable in polynomial time.
○ P is a subset of NP.
○ Uncertainty exists whether P=NPP = NPP=NP.
6. What does NP-hard mean?
○ Refers to problems at least as hard as the hardest NP problems.
○ May or may not be in NP.
○ Includes optimization problems like TSP.
○ No polynomial-time solution is known.
7. Define complexity theory.
○ Studies the efficiency of algorithms in terms of resources.
○ Analyzes time and space complexity.
○ Classifies problems into complexity classes (P, NP, etc.).
○ Explores solvability and computational limits.
8. When is a problem said to be NP-hard?
○ When solving it can solve all NP problems.
○ Harder than or as hard as NP problems.
○ Example: TSP, Subset Sum.
○ Reduction from NP problems is possible.
9. Give the purpose of Lower Bound.
○ Represents the minimum computational effort required.
○ Helps determine algorithm efficiency.
○ Guides algorithm improvement.
○ Used in sorting and searching problems.
10. What is reduction?
○ Transforms one problem into another.
○ Used to prove problem hardness.
○ Basis for showing NP-completeness.
○ Examples: SAT to 3-SAT.
11. What are standard NP Completeness problems?
○ SAT (Satisfiability Problem).
○ 3-SAT (3-variable SAT).
○ Traveling Salesman Problem.
○ Clique Problem.
12. Define Cook’s Theorem.
○ Establishes SAT as NP-complete.
○ SAT is reducible to any NP problem.
○ Basis for identifying other NP-complete problems.
○ Introduced the concept of NP-completeness.
13. What is computability of algorithms?
○ Defines whether a problem is solvable by an algorithm.
○ Solvable problems are computable.
○ Linked to Turing machines.
○ Examples: Sorting (computable), Halting Problem (non-computable).
14. Difference between tractable and intractable problems.
○ Tractable: Solvable in polynomial time (feasible).
○ Intractable: Require exponential time (impractical).
○ Tractable: Searching, Intractable: TSP.
○ Tractability depends on the input size.
15. Difference between P and NP classes.
○ P: Problems solved in polynomial time.
○ NP: Problems verified in polynomial time.
○ P problems are a subset of NP.
○ Open question: P=NP?P = NP?P=NP?.
16. What are computable classes?
○ Problems classified based on solvability.
○ Includes P, NP, NP-hard, and NP-complete.
○ Helps understand problem complexity.
○ Guides algorithm development.
17. What are the types of complexity classes?
○ P: Solvable in polynomial time.
○ NP: Verifiable in polynomial time.
○ NP-hard: At least as hard as NP problems.
○ NP-complete: NP and NP-hard.
18. Define NP-hard.
○ Problems at least as hard as NP problems.
○ Solving them solves all NP problems.
○ May not be verifiable in polynomial time.
○ Examples: TSP, Halting Problem.
19. Define NP-complete.
○ Problems in NP that are as hard as any NP problem.
○ Both verifiable and reducible in polynomial time.
○ Examples: SAT, Clique Problem.
○ Formed by reduction from other NP-complete problems.
20. Difference between NP-hard and NP-complete.
○ NP-Hard: May not be in NP.
○ NP-Complete: Must be in NP.
○ NP-hard is a broader category.
○ All NP-complete problems are NP-hard.
21. What is the significance of Cook’s Theorem?
○ Established SAT as the first NP-complete problem.
○ Introduced the concept of NP-completeness.
○ Basis for proving other NP-complete problems.
○ Links P, NP, and computational complexity.

CO6: Approximation and Randomized Algorithms

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CO6: Approximation and Randomized Algorithms

1. How is the accuracy of the approximation algorithm measured?


○ Measured using approximation ratio R=CapproxCoptimalR =
\frac{C_{approx}}{C_{optimal}}R=Coptimal​Capprox​​.
○ CapproxC_{approx}Capprox​: Cost of approximate solution.
○ CoptimalC_{optimal}Coptimal​: Cost of the optimal solution.
○ Helps evaluate the algorithm's efficiency.
2. Define heuristics.
○ Problem-solving approach using practical methods.
○ Focuses on quick, satisfactory solutions.
○ Does not guarantee the optimal solution.
○ Example: Greedy algorithms for scheduling.
3. What is Absolute Approximation?
○ Approximation algorithm guarantees a fixed error margin.
○ The difference between the approximate and optimal solution is bounded.
○ Example: Approximation for vertex cover problems.
○ Ensures reliable suboptimal solutions.
4. Define Quantum Computing.
○ Computational approach using quantum mechanics principles.
○ Processes information using qubits.
○ Enables superposition and entanglement for parallelism.
○ Promises speedup for specific problems (e.g., factoring).
5. Define chromatic number of a graph.
○ Minimum number of colors needed to color a graph.
○ Adjacent vertices must have different colors.
○ Used in scheduling and resource allocation.
○ Example: Chromatic number of a complete graph KnK_nKn​is nnn.
6. What is E-approximation?
○ Ensures a solution is within (1+ϵ)×Coptimal(1+\epsilon) \times
C_{optimal}(1+ϵ)×Coptimal​.
○ ϵ\epsilonϵ: Small positive error value.
○ Often used in optimization problems.
○ Balances speed and solution accuracy.
7. What is Relative Approximation?
○ Measures how close the approximate solution is to the optimal.
○ Ratio-based metric, R=CapproxCoptimalR =
\frac{C_{approx}}{C_{optimal}}R=Coptimal​Capprox​​.
○ Lower values indicate better approximations.
○ Examples: Traveling Salesman Problem approximations.
8. What is the concept behind randomized algorithms?
○ Use random numbers to influence decisions.
○ Can achieve better average-case performance.
○ Examples: QuickSort, Monte Carlo simulations.
○ Often simpler and faster than deterministic algorithms.
9. What are randomized algorithms?
○ Algorithms using random input to solve problems.
○ Provide probabilistic guarantees on correctness or performance.
○ Types: Monte Carlo, Las Vegas algorithms.
○ Example: Randomized QuickSort.
10. Why should we use randomized algorithms?
○ Simplicity and speed in implementation.
○ Effective for large or complex datasets.
○ Avoids worst-case scenarios in deterministic approaches.
○ Examples: Primality testing, hashing.
11. What are the two main types of randomized algorithms?
○ Monte Carlo: Guarantees speed but not correctness.
○ Las Vegas: Guarantees correctness but not speed.
○ Monte Carlo is used in approximations, while Las Vegas focuses on exact
solutions.
○ Examples: Randomized QuickSort (Las Vegas).
12. Define local search heuristics.
○ Iteratively improves solutions by exploring neighbors.
○ Stops when no better neighboring solution exists.
○ Used in optimization problems like TSP.
○ Example: Hill Climbing, Simulated Annealing.
13. What is the significance of Shor’s Algorithm in quantum computing?
○ Efficiently factors large numbers.
○ Threatens classical cryptographic systems (RSA).
○ Demonstrates quantum advantage for integer factorization.
○ Key example of quantum computational speedup.
14. How does quantum parallelism work in quantum computing?
○ Uses superposition to process multiple states simultaneously.
○ Increases computational speed for certain problems.
○ Enables algorithms like Grover’s and Shor’s.
○ Works on problems requiring large-scale data exploration.
15. How does the Deutsch-Jozsa Algorithm provide an exponential speedup over
classical algorithms?
○ Determines if a function is constant or balanced in a single query.
○ Uses quantum superposition and interference.
○ Exponentially faster than classical approaches.
○ Demonstrates early quantum computational advantages.

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