Resistance Functions

M. Saatcioglu

uOttawa.ca
1
 Resistance: R = k u
❑Resistance of an element is the internal force tending to restore the element to its
unloaded static position.
❑For the purpose of blast load analysis resistance is defined as the total force the
element could resist statically.

Resistance Elastic response

Inelastic response – Ductile behaviour

Inelastic response
Brittle behaviour
Deformation

2
 Resistance Functions
❑An important aspect of dynamic inelastic analysis of elements under blast loads is the
determination of resistance functions, which describe the variation of stiffness during
many phases of loading.
❑The behavior of an element changes depending on the characteristics of the material
used. Structural steel elements can be described with elasto-plastic resistance
functions, so long as they do not experience local or global buckling. For steel
elements it may be sufficient to prescribe the yield strength and the elastic modulus.
The resistance curves used in the preceding lectures are often applicable to steel
structures. Steel as a material exhibits fairly ductile behavior.
❑Reinforced concrete and masonry members show different behavior than structural
steel.

3
 Example: Resistance Function of a Steel Member
Obtain the resistance function of the simply supported steel mullion loaded
uniformly about its strong axis ignoring strain hardening.
Fy = 350 MPa, Est = 200 GPa, I = 5.28*105 mm4
If strain hardening is ignored,
then the resistance function
L = 3m will look very similar to the
ones assumed in the elasto-
h = 76 mm plastic chart.
b = 51 mm
t = 3.2 mm
E * I = 200, 000 MPa *5.28*105 mm 4 =105.6 kNm 2

4
 Example: Resistance Function of a Steel Member
We need to find the yield displacement and the corresponding force. The ultimate
(rupture) strain of steel is approximately 0.1 or 10%. Depending on the yield stress of
the steel being used, 0.1 ultimate strain is 50 to 100 times the yield strain.
Fy * I wy * L2
My = = 4.93 kNm =
h/2 8 Rm =
13.1 kN
M y *8 4.93 kNm *8
wy = = = 4.38 kN / m
(3 m)
2 2
L

5* 4.38 kN / m * ( 3 m )
4
5* wy * L4
uy = = 2
43.8 mm
384* EI 384*105.6 kNm
8* M y
Rm = wy * L = =13.1 kN uy = 43.8 mm
L
5
 Material Nonlinearity of Reinforced Concrete
Concrete & Steel
❑ Reinforced concrete consists of two nonlinear materials; i)
concrete and ii) steel.
fc
f’c fs Strain Hardening

Yield Plateau

Concrete Steel

o c y s

6
 Flexural Deformations in
Reinforced Concrete
❑ Bending moments generate curvatures in each section. The variation of curvatures
under increasing bending moment is expressed as Moment-Curvature (M-)
relationship. (M-) relationship shows characteristics of sectional behaviour.

❑ Member deformations, in the form of rotations of segments () or displacements ()

of members are obtained by integrating sectional behaviour. Therefore, (M-)
relationship provides the most fundamental information for establishing M- or M-
(as well as R- or R-) relationships.

7
 Curvature
Curvature is a sectional deformation quantity

Φ = Curvature
(Rotation per unit length)

8
Moment – Curvature Relationship

9
 Sectional Analysis
❑ Moment-curvature relationship is established through sectional
analysis. Sectional analysis for reinforced concrete is sometimes εc
referred to as “plane-section analysis.” This is because we use ϕ
Bernoulli’s principles in conduction sectional analysis, which states
“plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.”

❑ In conducting sectional analysis, perfect bond is assumed εs

between steel and concrete. This ensures the compatibility of
strains, i.e., the change in steel strain is equal to the change in Strain Diagram

concrete strain at the level of steel. This is referred to as

“strain compatibility” analysis.

10
 Sectional Analysis

C
Sectional
forces
T

❑ Having established strains in the section, stresses and forces can be computed
from material stress strain relationships. Internal forces provide moment
resistance and strain diagram provides curvature. Moments and curvatures
corresponding to different strain profiles can be plotted to construct the
Moment-Curvature relationship.

11
 Elastic Behaviour
Elastic Flexural Theory (fc = Mc/I)

c The presence of reinforcement

n.a. in concrete can be ignored until
the concrete cracks. Hence it
may not be necessary to
compute transformed section
properties.

Mcr: Cracking moment fr: Modulus of rupture

12
 Inelastic Behaviour
ϕ
n.a.

Strain Diagram Stress Diagram

Moment resistance: M = C x = T x

13
 Normal-Strength Concrete
(Strength less than 55 MPa)

fc f’c
2
2𝜀𝑐 𝜀𝑐 0.85f’c
𝑓𝑐 = 𝑓′𝑐 −
𝜀0 𝜀0

𝐸𝑐 = 𝛾 1.5 0.043 𝑓′𝑐

For NSC: Ec

𝐸𝑐 = 4500 𝑓′𝑐
fr o 0.0038 c
Hognestad’s Model
14
 Internal Compressive Force
f'c
cc fc
c
c
c Cc dc

c cc
Neutral axis Substituting Hognestad’s Curve and
Strain Stress
integrating:
Cc = Area under the parabola
Cc = Area under the equivalent
rectangular stress block
Cc = f’c b c

15
 Point of Application of Force
Moment of the area about the origin fc
cc f'c
c

c = dc
c Cc
cc
c
Neutral axis
Substituting Hognestad’s Curve and integrating:
Strain Stress

16
 Rectangular Stress Block Coefficients

❑ For the ascending branch, use the coefficients 𝛼 and 𝛾

to get the area and the point of application of force
for the parabolic curve.
❑ For the descending branch, use simple geometric
shapes for the same.

17
 Rectangular Stress Block at Ultimate
Building code approach

a=

Cc = T For under-reinforced  1c f ' c ab = As  s f y M r = As  s f y ( d −

a
)
2
sections steel yields
prior to the crushing of s As f y  s f y 
a = M r = bd 2 1 −   s f y
concrete.  1c f ' c b  2 f ' 
1 c c 

ϕc = ϕs = 1.0 for nominal strength and Mn = Mr

18
 Rectangular Stress Block at Ultimate
❑ Used for the computation of nominal strength of members, as prescribed by codes
and standards.

❑ Rectangular stress block parameters were derived ONLY for the ultimate strain
condition.

❑ Ultimate crushing strain under strain gradient is assumed to occur at 0.003 extreme
fibre strain in the US practice (ACI 318) and at 0.0035 in the Canadian practice (CSA
A23.3).

❑ The stress block was derived as a result of special column tests conducted using
Hognestad columns.

19
 Moment – Curvature Relationship
Once internal forces in steel and concrete are computed, the moment resistance
at each stage of loading and corresponding curvature are computed. This results
in moment-curvature relationship. Moment
Mu = Mn
Mn

0.75Mn

Effective elastic rigidity

Actual
Idealized
(bi-linear)

y u Curvature

20
 Example 12
Moment curvature analysis of a reinforced
concrete section

21
 Flexural Deformations
❑ Bending moments generate curvatures in each section. The variation of curvatures under
increasing bending moment is expressed as Moment-Curvature (M-) relationship. (M-)
relationship shows characteristics of sectional behaviour.
❑ Member deformations, in the form of rotations of segments () or displacements () of
members are obtained by integrating sectional behaviour. Therefore, (M-) relationship
provides the most fundamental information for establishing M- or M- relationships.
dΔ = d x = ϕ x dx
d = Rotation over length dx

d =  dx

 = Sectional curvature;
constant over “dx” 22
 Rotations and Displacements
❑ Let’s remember Moment-Area Theorem

Theorem 1: The change in slope between any two

points on the elastic curve equals the area of the d = M dx
M/EI diagram between these two points. EI
B B
M
Theorem 2: The vertical deviation of the tangent at a  d =
A A
EI
dx
point (A) on the elastic curve with respect to the
B = B − A
tangent extended from another point (B) equals the A

“moment” of the area under the M, EI diagram B

M *x
between the two points (A and B). This moment is  = A EI dx
computed about point A (the point on the elastic
curve), where the deviation tA/B is to be determined.
ds = dx ( small deformations)
23
 Rotations and Displacements

❑ Rotation is the area under the curvature

diagram
❑ Displacement is the moment of the area
under the curvature diagram

24
 Rotations and Displacements

❑ Numerical example: A L = 5m B
20 kN*m

Rotation at point B,
B/A = M/EI * L = 20/EI * 5 = 100/EI
20 kN*m / EI

Deflection at point B, Tangent at A

B = M/EI * L * L /2 = 20/EI * 5 * 5/2 = 250/EI B/A
B

Note that it is customary (and efficient) to choose a Tangent at B

reference point where rotation is zero. This allows
easy calculation of deflection.

25
 Example 13
Moment rotation and moment displacement
relationships for a reinforced concrete beam

26
Idealized Rotations and Deformations at Ultimate
Equivalent plastic hinge length
within which ϕ is constant
Moment
Mu = Mn
Mn

0.75Mn

Effective elastic rigidity

Actual
Idealized
(bi-linear)

y u Curvature

27
Idealized Rotations at Ultimate

EcIeff

Plastic rotation
𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑦
𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = =
𝜙𝑦 𝜙𝑦
Elastic rotation

28
Curvature at Yield and Ultimate

29
 Empirical Expressions for lp
i) Corley:

d : effective depth in inches

b : width of beam
z : shear span (distance between the critical section and point of inflection
ρs: volumetric ratio of confining steel (volume of confining steel/volume of core concrete)
fy : yield strength of confining steel

30
 Empirical Expressions for lp

ii) Mattock:

iii) Sawyer:

All terms are the same as those defined for Corley’s expression

31
 Example 14
Moment curvature; moment rotation and moment
displacement relationships for a reinforced concrete beam

32
Example: Compute the resistance function for the simply supported reinforced concrete
beam show below. 𝐸𝑐 = 4,500 𝑓𝑐′ 𝑓𝑦 = 400 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐸𝑠 = 200,000 𝑀𝑃𝑎

uo
L = 6.0 m

b = 300 mm
h = 500 mm

ℓ𝑝 = 𝑑 = 450 𝑚𝑚

3-20M
50 mm
Cross-Section
33
Example (Cont’d):
Moment curvature relationship for the beam section is computed as shown below.
State Moment (kN.m) Curvature (1/mm) 180
Unloaded 0 0 160

Cracking 52 0.55E-06 140

(EI)eff

Moment, kN.m
Yielding 148 5.88E-06 120
1/ 2*161*  y + 161*(87.5 −  y )  *10 −3 = 13.192kN
Ultimate 161 87.5E-06 100
 y = 11.1*10−6 1/ mm
80
Find bilinear idealization by equating 60
areas under the two curves. 1/ 2*52*0.55 + 
40 1/ 2*(52 + 148) *(5.88 − 0.55) +  *10 −3 = 13.192kN
 
A (tri-linear)= 13.192 kN 20 1/ 2*(148 + 161) *(87.5 − 5.88) 

A(bi-linear)= 14.088 - 80500 y 0

0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001
Curvature, 1/mm

y = 11.124 x 10-6 1/mm (EI)eff = 161/11.124 x 10-3 = 14,473 kN.m2

34
 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
Example (Cont’d): 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 = (ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
3
3
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑢𝑦 𝑢u𝑦o 5

2 𝑀 𝐿 3 2 161 6 3
𝑢𝑦 = (𝑙) = (3.0)
M/EI Diagram at yield 3 𝐸𝐼 2 5 3 14,473 2 5
wL2
𝑢𝑦 = 0.040 𝑚 = 40 𝑚𝑚 My =
8
5𝑤𝐿4 5𝑀𝐿2
M/EI Diagram at ultimate
or simply; 𝑢𝑦 = = = 0.041𝑚 = 41 𝑚𝑚
384𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼
𝑢𝑝 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
Rectangular 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝐿 ℓ𝑝
𝑢𝑝 = 𝜙𝑢 − 𝜙𝑦 ℓ𝑝 − =(0.0875-0.0111)(0.45)(3.0-0.225)
2 2

𝑢𝑝 = 0.095 𝑚 = 95 𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑚 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑝 = 0.135 𝑚 = 135 𝑚𝑚

ℓ𝑝 /2 35
Example (Cont’d): 250

𝑤𝐿2 𝑅𝐿 200
M= =
8 8

Resistance (R), kN
150
8𝑀 8(161)
𝑅𝑚 = = = 215 𝑘𝑁
𝐿 6 100

𝑢𝑚 135 50
𝜇= = = 3.4
𝑢𝑦 40
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Displacement (u), mm

36
 Tri-linear Resistance Function
w
Example
Consider the reinforced concrete beam A B
shown in the figure, fully fixed at both ends L
and subjected to uniformly distributed load.
b = 250 mm b = 250 mm
The beam is reinforced with 3-25M bars top

h = 400 mm
3-25M

h = 400 mm
50 mm
and bottom, as shown in the figure. The
moment curvature relationship for the
3-25M
section has been computed and is available. 50 mm
Negative Positive
Compute the resistance function. moment section moment section
L=6.0 m ℓ𝑝 = 𝑑 = 450 𝑚𝑚
37
Example (Cont’d):
Moment curvature relationship for the beam sections for both negative and positive bending
is shown. 1 / 2 *191*  + 191* (47.8 −  )  *10 = 8.28kN −3
 y y 
State Moment (kN.m) Curvature (1/mm) 250  y = 7.89 *10−6 1 / mm
Unloaded 0 0
200
Cracking 34 0.7E-06

Moment, kN.m
Yielding 186 8.5E-06 150

Ultimate 191 47.8E-06

100 1 / 2 * 34 * 0.7 + 
1 / 2 * (34 + 186) * (8.5 − 0.7) +  *10 −3 = 8.28kN
Find bilinear idealization by equating  
50 (EI)eff 1 / 2 * (186 + 191) * (47.8 − 8.5) 
areas under the two curves.
0
A (tri-linear)= 8.280 kN 0 0.00001 0.00002 0.00003 0.00004 0.00005 0.00006

A(bi-linear)= (1624 X 10-3 – 95.5 y) kN Curvature, 1/mm

y = 7.89 X 10-3 1/m (EI)eff = 191/7.89 x 10-3 = 24,208 kN.m2

38
 Tri-linear Resistance Function
Example (Cont’d) w
If the beam sectional capacity is the same in
negative and positive bending, then it will A B
hinge at the supports under load w1 first
because the negative moments at the L
supports are higher than the positive moment
at the mid-span. Using the bilinear idealization
w1
of moment-curvature relationship;
My = 191 kN.m A B
𝑊1 𝐿2 C 𝑊1 𝐿2
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 =
𝑊1 𝐿2 12 12
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 = = 191 kN.m 𝑅1 = 𝑤1 𝐿
12
12𝑀 (12)(191)
𝑅1 = = = 382 𝑘𝑁 Moment Diagram
𝐿 6
𝑊1 𝐿2
𝑤1 = 63.7 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑀𝐶 =
24 39
Example (Cont’d)
u1 can be computed by considering two
small cantilevers that are connected at
the point of inflection. The deflection of L
each cantilever can be computed from
the Moment-Area Theorem. 𝑢1
1
𝑢11 = 1.268 191 0.887 𝑢11
3𝐸𝐼
𝑢11 = 0.00296 𝑚 191 kN.m 𝑢12
2 3
𝑢12 = 1.732 95.5 1.732 0.887 m
3𝐸𝐼 5
x 1.732 m
𝑢12 = 0.00473 𝑚
𝑢1 = 𝑢11 + 𝑢12 = 0.00296 + 0.00473 x
1.268 m
𝑢1 = 0.00769 𝑚 = 7.7 𝑚𝑚 1.04 m 95.5 kN.m
40
Example (Cont’d)
The deflection under R1 can be computed from the available equation, more accurately.
𝑤1 𝐿4 𝑅1 𝐿3 w2
𝑢1 = = = 0.0089 𝑚 = 8.9 𝑚𝑚
384𝐸𝐼 384𝐸𝐼
Upon the formation of plastic hinges at A B
supports under w1, the beam resists additional C
load of w2 until the third hinge forms at mid- 𝑊2 𝐿2
𝑀𝐶 =
span under positive bending. w2 is applied on 8
the beam with simple supports, since at this Moment Diagram
stage of loading the beam has already hinged
at the supports. Clearly, there are two
components of loading to attain plastic
capacity; w1 + w2 = w Collapse Mechanism
Resistance due to w1 is R1 and the mid-span deflection under w1 is u1. The additional
resistance due to w2 is R2 and mid-span deflection under w2 is u2.
41
Example (Cont’d)
𝑊2 𝐿2
𝑀𝐶 = = (191 − 95.5) = 95.5 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚 𝑤2 = 21.2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑅2 = 𝑤2 𝐿 = 127.2 𝑘𝑁
8
w= 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 = 63.7 + 21.2 = 84.9 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 509 𝑘𝑁

Once the formation of yielding and hinging in the support regions take place, the hinges
rotate as the moment is re-distributed towards the mid-span section. If the support sections
have sufficient rotational capacity, then the beam will be able to distribute moments toward
the positive moment region without the failure of the supports, and the third hinge forms in
the mid-span region. Otherwise, the beam will fail at the supports, prior to the development
of the middle hinge due to lack of ductility (rotational capacity) in the support regions.
Therefore, we should first check and see if the beam has sufficient ductility near the
supports. This can be done by computing plastic rotations (rotational demands).
42
Example (Cont’d) 𝑊𝐿2 84.9(6)2
𝑀𝐶 = = = 382 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
W = 84.9 kN/m 8 8
′
2 𝐿 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝐿
𝜃𝐴 = = = 0.0315 𝑟𝑎𝑑
3 2 𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
uo
𝜃𝐴′ 𝐿 𝑀𝐴
𝜃𝐴′′ = = 0.0237 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 𝐸𝐼
𝑝 Rotational
MC/EI 𝜃𝐴 = − 𝜃𝐴′ 𝜃𝐴′′
= 0.0078 𝑟𝑎𝑑
demand
𝑝
𝜃𝐴′′ 𝜃𝐴 = (𝜙𝑢 −𝜙𝑦 )ℓ𝑝 Rotational capacity
𝑝
𝜃𝐴 = 47.8 − 7.89 𝑥10−3 0.45

𝑀𝐴 = 191 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚 𝑝
𝑀𝐵 = 191 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚 𝜃𝐴 = 0.0178 rad
MA/EI 0.0178 rad > 0.0078 rad OK
43
 𝑢1 = 0.0089 𝑚
2 3
Example (Cont’d) 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢1 + 3.0 95.5 3 = 0.0231 𝑚
W2 = 21.2 kN/m 3𝐸𝐼 5
𝐿 ℓ𝑝
𝑢𝑝 = (𝜙𝑢 −𝜙𝑦 )ℓ𝑝 ( − )
2 2
𝑢𝑝 = (47.8 − 7.89)10−3 (0.45)(2.775)
uo
𝑢𝑝 = 0.0498 𝑚 = 49.8 𝑚𝑚

𝜙𝑦 = 𝑀𝐶 /𝐸𝐼 𝑢𝑚 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑢𝑝 = 0.0231 + 0.0498 = 0.073 𝑚

R
Hinge @ mid-span
Rm
𝜙𝑢 𝑅1 = 382 𝑘𝑁
𝑅2
R1 Hinges @
𝑅2 = 127 𝑘𝑁
supports
𝑅𝑚 = 509 𝑘𝑁
ℓ𝑝
𝑢1 = 0.0089 𝑚
u1 uy um u
44
 Maximum Resistance for One-Way Members
❑ Typically, negative moments applied at the supports are higher Hinge @ mid-span
Rm
than the positive moments applied in the span. Although the
sequence of yielding and the formation of plastic hinges
depend on the capacity of each section (as in the case of
Example 15), the support regions yield first and the mid-span uy u
Simple supports
region yields later as stresses redistribute towards the mid- R
Rm for Hinge @ mid-span
span. This is especially true if the negative and positive
inelastic
moment capacities of sections for a given element are the
Rm for Hinges @ supports
same (as in the case of structural steel members). For such elastic
common cases in practice, it is possible to express maximum
resistance at the end of each segment in terms of ultimate
u1 uy u
moment capacities (see the following tables). One or two fixed support
45
Maximum Resistance for One-Way Members
Maximum Resistance for Two-Way Slabs
Maximum Resistance for Two-Way Slabs
 Resistance Functions for Masonry Walls
❑Investigation of blast resistance of masonry
walls plays a significant role of blast risk
mitigation. Concrete block and clay brick
walls are frequently used for building
envelop.
❑They appear in building construction either
in the form of infill walls (non-structural),
enclosed by structural frames, or as load
bearing masonry walls.

49
 Resistance Functions for Masonry Walls
❑Another form of masonry is stone masonry. Stone masonry is common in historic
buildings with heritage value.
❑Masonry walls pose two types of risks; i) failure and associated damage to buildings,
and ii) flying debris/fragments that can be lethal to occupants.

50
 Arching Action in Masonry Walls
❑ When an unreinforced masonry wall, longitudinally restrained against movement at its
supports, is subjected to lateral loads, the tension face of the wall cannot elongate
without inducing in-plane compressive forces. These compressive forces result in arching
action within the thickness

51
52
 Arching Action in Masonry Walls
❑ The arching force acts over a small area in the compression zone. The distribution of
compressive stress follows the shape of the stress-strain relationship of mortar in the
joint, which can be represented by a second order parabola. However, the rectangular
stress block with uniform stress of fc = 0.85f’j provides a reasonably accurate
representation of this distribution at the ultimate crushing stress level, where f’j is the
compressive strength of mortar joint as established by standard cube tests. The
magnitude of the compressive force C per unit horizontal length (ℓ) of wall can then be
computed as shown below:
𝐶 = 𝑓𝑐 1 − 𝛾 𝑡
❑ Where, 1 − 𝛾 𝑡 represents the length of the compression zone in wall critical sections
(at wall ends or at mid-height). The coefficient is the ratio of wall section depth between
the extreme tension fibre and the beginning point of the rectangular compression stress
block to the wall thickness “t”.
53
 Arching Action in Masonry Walls
❑ The British Code BS5628 (1985) suggests the
use of 0.1t for the length of the compression
zone (𝛾 = 0.9) for walls that are completely
restrained against in-plane movement. For
load bearing masonry walls this length can be
higher because of the clamping effect of the
axial load. As the axial load increases the
compression zone increases.

𝑤ℎ2 8𝐶
= 𝐶 𝛾𝑡 − ∆ 𝑤 = 2 (𝛾𝑡 − Δ)
8 ℎ

54
 Arching Action in Masonry Walls
8𝐶
𝑤 = 2 (𝛾𝑡 − Δ)
ℎ
The above equation can be rewritten in terms of ultimate lateral load capacity when w = wu
and 𝐶 = 0.85𝑓𝑗 1 − 𝛾 𝑡.
8
𝑤𝑢 = 2 𝛾𝑡 − Δ [0.85𝑓𝑗 1 − 𝛾 𝑡]
ℎ

The expression for ultimate load capacity is derived for the failure plane taking place at mid-
height. Sometimes, because of the way the wall is constructed and the support conditions,
the failure plane may occur closer to the support. The effect of the failure plane location
should be reflected in the above expression.

55
 Arching Action in Masonry Walls

Wall failure above mid-height

56
Arching Action in Masonry Walls

Effect of the location of failure plane

57
 Arching Action in Masonry Walls
Cracking Load Calculations:
The force-displacement relationships of masonry walls indicate initially very stiff elastic
behavior up to the initial cracking load, followed by a softer response. Therefore, the
calculation of cracking load plays an important role in establishing the resistance curve for
masonry walls. Flexural cracking occurs when the mortar joint at mid-height reaches its
modulus of rupture (cracking tensile strength). Cracking load under combined axial
compression and bending can be computed by setting the applied tensile stress equal to
the modulus of rupture of mortar. The extreme tensile stress fmr under combined axial
compression and bending can be expressed as shown below.
𝑀𝑐𝑟 𝑐 𝑃 𝐼 𝑃 𝑤𝑐𝑟 ℎ2 8𝐼 𝑃
𝑓𝑚𝑟 = − 𝑀𝑐𝑟 = + 𝑓𝑚𝑟 𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑤𝑐𝑟 = 2 + 𝑓𝑚𝑟
𝐼 𝐴 𝑐 𝐴 8 𝑐ℎ 𝐴
fmr varies between 0.3 MPa and 0.1 MPa for Type N mortar.
58
 Resistance Function

❑ A typical idealized resistance function

consists of 4 linear segments.
• Elastic behavior up to cracking.
• Post cracking response up to
maximum resistance.
• Constant plastic resistance.
• Strength decay region.

59
 Resistance Function
Linear segment up to cracking: This is the elastic region of response. It is primarily based on
flexural behavior with uncracked member stiffness where the flexural rigidity is based on the
properties of masonry prisms. The following expression provides maximum deflection at
mid-height of walls.
5𝑤ℎ4
𝛿=
384𝐸𝐼
Where E is the elastic modulus of masonry based on prism strength (f’m):

𝐸𝑚 = 850𝑓𝑚′

The slope of the first line segment k1, can be computed as:
𝐹𝑐𝑟
𝑘1 =
𝛿𝑐𝑟
Fcr can be obtained by multiplying wcr by the tributary area of wall. Deflection at crack
initiation 𝛿𝑐𝑟 can be obtained with wcr substituted in place of w in the above expression.
60
 Resistance Function
Linear segment between cracking and maximum resistance: This segment can be
established by connecting the cracking point and 0.3% drift point (computed as
maximum deflection divided by wall height) at Fmax where Fmax can be computed using
the expression for wu with  = 0.003h. This level of lateral drift is generally accepted as
the end of cracked wall behavior prior to the onset of plastic deformations. It can be
taken as the immediate occupancy performance limit after an extreme load effect
(FEMA 273 1997, ASCE 41 2006). The wall maximum resistance obtained from the
equation for wu should be modified to reflect the level of composite action in multi-
wythe walls.

61
 Resistance Function
Constant plastic resistance segment: Stone masonry walls show a very short stable plastic
region during the crushing of mortar joints. The plastic region is especially less reliable in
the case of single-wythe walls. It is recommended that single-wythe walls have a limited
stable plastic region and the third segment in this case continue up to 0.6% drift ratio with
constant load resistance. This drift level is regarded as the life-safety performance limit in
FEMA 273 (1997) and ASCE-41 (2006) for seismic loading, indicating that the walls have
not entered into the strength decay region. For the double-wythe walls, the horizontal
segment of the resistance function may extend up to 1% lateral drift when resistance
remains constant as two stone masonry segments redistribute stresses prior to the onset
of strength decay.

62
 Resistance Function
Strength decay segment: This is the negative slope of the resistance function, reflecting
failure of the wall. As deflections increase, the critical joint mortar continues to crush with
eccentricity of arching forces becoming smaller. The reduction in internal eccentricity of the
force couple results in reduced resistance. The gradual reduction of resistance continues until
 = t, at which point it can no longer maintain its resistance and suffers from stability failure.
Until further test data becomes available, the negative slope of this segment may be taken as
being equal to the positive post cracking slope for single-wythe walls and 50% of the post-
cracking stiffness for double-wythe walls, showing more ductile behavior in the latter case.

63
 Resistance Function for Glass and Glazed Window Panes
❑ Glass windows and glass curtain walls are the most lethal elements of building façade during response
to blast shock waves. Broken glass fragments pose serious threat to life safety.
❑ Windows in practice usually appear in the form of a punched window, multi-pane office windows with
aluminum frames, or glass curtain walls covering fully or partially the window façade.

Punched window Curtain wall

Office window
64
 Blast Resistant Window Panes

Laminated Glass Glass with Protective Film

65
 Laminated Blast Resistant Window Panes

Single Lamination Laminated-Insulated Unit Multiple Lamination

66
Typical Material
Table Properties usedProperties
B4 Typical Materials for Blast-Resistant Window
(adopted from ARA 2005) Panes
Glass Properties
Elastic Modulus Mass Density Static Strength
Type
(MPa) (kg/m3) (MPa)
Annealed 6900 0
70,000 2400 28
Thermally Tempered 70,000
6900 0 2400 52
Chemically Strengthened 70,000
6900 2400 110

Protective Film Properties

Elastic Modulus Mass Density Static Tensile
Type
(MPa) (kg/m3) Strength (MPa)
PET Film 3792 1000 227

Laminate Properties
Elastic Modulus Mass Density Static Tensile
Type
(MPa) (kg/m3) Strength (MPa)
PVC 345 1000 24
SGP 300 900 45
Note: Material properties may vary significantly. The values provided are only intended to
serve as commonly used sample values.
67
 Resistance Function for Window Pane
❑Glass is a rigid and brittle
material. It behaves elastically
until it breaks.
❑Glass breakage is followed by a
sharp drop in resistance,
followed by softer response
due to the membrane action of
the protective film/internal
laminate.
❑Resistance function can be
established by using software.
Wingard (2005), SBEDS-
W(2012) or FEM Analysis
provide resistance functions.
68
Post-Break Stage and Membrane Action

69
 Glass Resistance Prior to Breakage (Pre-Break Phase)
❑ It can be established up to breakage in one of the following ways:
▪ Approximately by using the recommendation of CSA S852.
▪ Approximately by using the two-way slab coefficients for stiffness and
transformation factors, which are developed for panels with small deflections (more
accurate up to a deflection of half the panel thickness).
▪ More accurately by using the relationships developed by Moore (1980) for panels
with large deflections experiencing geometric nonlinearities. It was indicated that
the membrane action contributes to resistance beyond a deflection greater than
50% of the panel thickness.

70
 CSA S852 Approximation
For two-way windows the following approximate values given below, independent of the
aspect ratio, provide sufficiently accurate stiffness estimates:
𝐸𝐼𝑎
𝑘 = 227 2 (for simple support condition)
𝑎
𝐸𝐼𝑎
𝑘 = 758 2 (for fixed end support condition)
𝑎
where; E is the modulus of elasticity (E = 70,000 MPa for glass).
Moment of inertia “Ia” for a single glass pane and two-way action can be computed for
a unit width of window: 𝑡𝑔3
𝐼𝑎 = where “tg” is the window pane thickness:
12
a: Short length of the panel.
𝑤𝑡𝑔3
For a one-way window having width “w”: 𝐼𝑎 =
12 71
 CSA S852 Approximation

For a double-pane IGU (insulation glass/glazing unit) the moment of inertia

for a unit width:
2
𝑡𝑔3 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑔
𝐼𝑎 = 2 + 𝑡𝑔
12 2

72
 CSA S852 Approximation
Maximum glass capacity can be computed using the following expressions:

▪ Two-way windows with fixed supports: 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 58.4𝑓𝑤 𝐷𝐼𝐹 𝐼𝑎 /𝑡

▪ Two-way windows with simple supports: 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 48.0𝑓𝑤 𝐷𝐼𝐹 𝐼𝑎 /𝑡

▪ One-way windows with fixed supports: 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 24.0𝑓𝑤 𝐷𝐼𝐹 𝐼/(𝐿𝑡)

▪ One-way windows with simple supports: 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16.0𝑓𝑤 𝐷𝐼𝐹 𝐼/(𝐿𝑡)

Where, “fw“ is static glass capacity and “t” is total window thickness (including all the panes,
laminations and air gap if any). “L” is the length of one-way window between the supports.
DIF (Dynamic Increase Factor) for glass is a current topic for research. The British Code (BS
EN 572-1) suggests a value of 1.78 for glass. 73
 Transformation Factors for Windows
a: Length of short side of element.
b: Length of long side of element For Panels with
k: Spring constant for the actual element Small Deflections
Ia: Moment of inertia of section per unit width
E: Elastic modulus
VA and VB: Dynamic reaction along short and long side, respectively
F = P(a)(b) P: Uniform pressure per unit area R: Resistance (ku)
Aspect Load factor Mass factor Load-mass Spring Dynamic Dynamic
ratio a/b KL KM factor KLM constant k reaction VA reaction VB
1.0 0.46 0.31 0.67 252EIa/a2 0.18R+0.07F 0.18R+0.07F
0.9 0.47 0.33 0.70 230EIa/a2 0.16R+0.06F 0.20R+0.08F
0.8 0.49 0.35 0.71 212EIa/a2 0.14R+0.06F 0.22R+0.08F
0.7 0.51 0.37 0.73 201EIa/a2 0.13R+0.05F 0.24R+0.08F
0.6 0.53 0.39 0.74 197EIa/a2 0.11R+0.04F 0.26R+0.09F
74
0.5 0.55 0.41 0.75 201EIa/a2 0.09R+0.04F 0.28R+0.09F
 Transformation Factors for Windows
a: Length of short side of window pane
For Panels with
b: Length of long side of window pane Small Deflections
k: Spring constant for the actual window pane
Ia: Moment of inertia of window section per unit width
E: Elastic modulus of glazed window pane or laminated glass
VA and VB: Dynamic reaction along short and long side, respectively
F = P(a)(b) P: Uniform pressure per unit area R: Resistance (ku)
Aspect Load factor Mass Load-mass Spring const. Dynamic Dynamic
ratio a/b KL factor KM factor KLM k reaction VA reaction VB
1.0 0.33 0.21 0.63 810EIa/a2 0.15R+0.1F 0.15R+0.1F
0.9 0.34 0.23 0.68 742EIa/a2 0.14R+0.09F 0.17R+0.1F
0.8 0.36 0.25 0.69 705EIa/a2 0.12R+0.08F 0.19R+0.11F
0.7 0.38 0.27 0.71 692EIa/a2 0.11R+0.07F 0.21R+0.11F
0.6 0.41 0.29 0.71 724EIa/a2 0.09R+0.06F 0.23R+0.12F
75
0.5 0.43 0.31 0.72 806EIa/a2 0.08R+0.05F 0.25R+0.12F
 Transformation Factors for Windows
k: Spring constant F = PL For Panels with
I: Moment of inertia of section P: Uniform pressure per length Small Deflections
E: Elastic modulus R: Resistance (ku)

Load Mass Load-mass Spring Dynamic Reaction

Loading diagram
factor, KL factor, KM factor, KLM constant k V

0.64 0.50 0.78 384EI/5L3 0.39R+0.11F

0.53 0.41 0.77 384EI/L3 0.36R+0.11F

V1=0.26R+0.12F
0.58 0.45 0.78 185EI/L3
V2=0.43R+0.19F
76
 Moore Relationships
(Incorporating large deflections dues to geometric nonlinearities)
𝐿𝑛𝑑 = 𝑝 𝑏4 Τ𝐷 𝑡
a: Length of long
side of panel 𝐸𝑡 3
𝐷=
b: Length of short 12 1 − 𝑣 2
side of panel
h: Mid-panel deflection E: Young modulus
t: Thickness of the
𝜐: Poisson’s ratio
panel

p: Peak pressure

77
 Moore Relationships
(Incorporating large deflections dues to geometric nonlinearities)
𝐿𝑛𝑑 = 𝑝 𝑏4 Τ𝐷 𝑡
a: Length of long
side of panel 𝐸𝑡 3
𝐷=
b: Length of short 12 1 − 𝑣 2
side of panel
sig: Stress in glass E: Young modulus

Static tests indicate 𝜐: Poisson’s ratio

the capacity of
annealed glass to be p: Peak pressure
27.6 MPa. The US
Army recommends t: Thickness of the
dynamic capacity to panel
be 100.7 MPa.

78
 Moore Relationships
(Incorporating large deflections dues to geometric nonlinearities)
Morison (2007) conducted extensive FEM analysis to develop expressions for dynamic reactions of
thin plates with simple supports as boundary conditions. These expressions are given below for
computing out-of-plane shear forces as support reactions.

𝑉𝐴 𝑡 = 𝐶𝐹𝐴 𝐹 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑅𝐴 𝑅 𝑡

𝑉𝐵 𝑡 = 𝐶𝐹𝐵 𝐹 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑅𝐵 𝑅 𝑡
Where 𝐶𝐹𝐴 and 𝐶𝑅𝐴 are coefficients for the applied load and window resistance along the short side of the
window panel, respectively, whereas coefficients 𝐶𝐹𝐵 and 𝐶𝑅𝐵 are for the long side.

79
Moore Relationships for Support Reactions

𝛿𝑚
𝑁𝐷 = , where 𝛿𝑚 is
𝑡𝑝

the central window

deflection and 𝑡𝑝 is the
panel thickness.

80
Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)

81
Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)

82
 Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)
❑ The window pane in this range responds in the membrane mode with the protective film or the interlayer
developing membrane stresses.
❑ The membrane theory for thin plates was developed by Timoshenko in 1940 for simply supported square
and rectangular plates.
❑ The Applied Research Associates Inc. (ARA 2005) developed a membrane resistance model for GSA
(General Services Administration) by balancing the strain energy in the membrane with the work done by
the applied uniform static pressure and incorporated the model in WINGARD software (GSA 2005).
❑ The GSA Model is used in the course.

83
 Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)
The GSA membrane model was adopted with the resistance function defined below, where po is the
resistance and wo is the centre deflection of the two-way membrane.

𝑎 6 2 𝑏 6 𝑎 6 2 𝑏 4 𝑎 4 2 𝑏 6 𝑏 2 𝑎 2 2
4. .𝐶1 .𝐶2 . − .𝐶4 .𝐶2 . − .𝐶3 .𝐶2 . +𝐶4 .𝐶5 .𝐶3 . . −𝐶1 .𝐶5
𝐸.𝑡.𝑤𝑜3 .𝜋2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑝𝑜 = .
73728 𝑎 4 𝑏 4 𝑏 6 𝑎 6 2 −𝐶 2
2
. 2 . 1−𝑣 2 . 4. 2
. 2
.𝐶22 5

Where:
𝐸 = Modulus of elasticity of the protective film or laminate (in psi)
𝑡 = Membrane thickness (in)
𝑣 = Poisson’s ratio
a = the short dimension of window (in)
b = the long dimension of window (in)
wo = maximum window deflection at the center of the window (in)

84
 Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)
C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 are coefficient that can be calculated using the expression given below:

𝑏 2 𝑎 2 𝑏 4 𝑎 4
𝐶1 = 18. ( ) . ( ) +81. ( ) +81. ( ) . 𝜋 4
2 2 2 2

𝐶2 = 10368 − 1152. 𝑣 . 𝜋 2

3 2 2 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝐶3 = −3072. + 768. 𝑣. ( ). − 768. ( ). + 1536. 𝑣. . ( ) . 𝜋2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 2 2
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 2
𝐶4 = −3072. + 768. 𝑣. . ( ) − 768. ( ) + 1536. 𝑣. ( ). ( ) . 𝜋 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

𝑏 3 𝑎 3
𝐶5 = 16384𝑣 + 16384 . ( ) . ( )
2 2 85
 Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)
Elastic membrane stresses and strains in X and Y direction (in the long and short directions,
respectively).

Notations are same as before; all units are in psi and in (imperial units)

86
Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)

Elasto-plastic resistance function

87
 Membrane Action (Post-Break Phase)

Default Strength Parameters for Elasto-Plastic Behavior

Elastic Modulus Allowable Strain

Material Type Poisson’s Ratio Yield Stress (MPa)
(MPa) (mm/mm)

PET Film 4150 0.25 157 1.3

PVC Laminate 345 0.47 21 2.0

SGP Laminate 300 0.34 25 4.0

88
 Example 15

Resistance Function for Glazed Window

89