CAN207 Signals and Systems

Part 2 – Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Lecture-D1
Introduction and Discrete-Time (DT) Signals

Zhao Wang
[email protected]
Room EE322

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Module Information

• Module Code: CAN207

• Module Title: Signals and Systems
• Module Credit: 5 credits
• Module Teachers:
– Zhao Wang (office: EE322)
• Office hour: Wed. and Fri. 13:00 – 15:00.
– Ye Liu (office: EEE212)
• Office hour: Tuesday 13:30-15:30, Friday 10:30-12:30

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Module Information

• Two assignments (each one for 15%):

– One for CT (by Dr. Liu) and one for DT (by Dr. Wang);
– Two weeks for completion
– General feedback

• Final Exam (3 hours, 70%)

– Close book exam, but equation list will be provided;

• Resit Exam (3 hours, 100%)

– Same as final exam.

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Resources
• On Learning Mall:
– Lecture materials and recorded lectures
– Self-practice problems and answers
– External links to useful resources

• Reference books
– 1. A.V.Oppenheim, Signals and Systems 2nd, Prentice Hall, 1997;
– 2. A.V.Oppenheim, Discrete Time Signal Processing 3rd, Pearson, 2014.

• Online courses:
– “Signals and Systems” on MIT OpenCourseWare
• Alan Oppenheim.
• RES.6-007 Signals and Systems. Spring 2011.
• https://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-007-signals-and-systems-spring-2011/#

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Content

• Discrete-Time (DT) Signals

– 0. Fundamentals
– 1. Basic signals (sequences)
– 2. Operations
– 3. Properties

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 Content

1. Signals (Sequences) 2. Operations 3. Properties

• Elementary (addition, • Symmetry
• Unit Impulse
multiplication, production)
• Unit Step • Time Shifting • Periodicity

• Rectangular • Time Reversal (folding) • Energy

• Real Exponential • Branching • Power

• Complex Exponential • Decimation & Interpolation • Bound

• Summable
• Sinusoidal • Convolution & Correlation (absolutely, square)

Lecture D2 6
0. CT vs. DT Signals

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0. Discrete-time (DT) Signals
• A discrete-time signal is represented by a series of values,
each of which has an index indicating the corresponding time
ordering of the values: x[n] = {x[0], x[1], x[2], ···}.
• Note that the square brackets represent the index of the
independent variable.

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0. How to get DT signals?
• Discrete-time Signal Generation
– Method 1: Naturally discrete in time
• Eg: population data, financial data

– Method 2: Periodically sampling a continuous time signal

x(t) with uniform sampling rate Fs
• Eg: sensor signals, audio signals

– Method 3: Sequences generated by digital devices

• Eg: synthesize music, file/data stored in computer

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 0. Example of Discrete-Space Signals
• Digital images (gray): are
2-D discrete-space signals.
– The intensity of the image
at location p[x, y].
– Stored images are made up
of a discrete number of
points → discrete space
signals.

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0. DT signals’ representation

• Graphical:

• Sequence:
Vector (array)

• Functional:
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0. Length of DT signals
• Finite-duration or finite-length sequences:
– Defined in the interval N1  n  N 2
– Length (duration): L=N2-N1+1
– A length-N sequence is often referred to as an N-point sequence

• Infinite-duration or infinite-length sequences:

– Right-side sequence: = 0, when ≤
– Left-side sequence: = 0, when ≥

– Double-sides sequence: ∈ integer 12

0. Why DT Systems
• Flexibility: the system can be reprogrammed such that the same
hardware can be used in a variety of different applications.

• Self-calibration: the digital hardware used to implement DT

systems does not drift with age or with changes in the operating
conditions and can be self-calibrated easily.

• Digital signals are less sensitive to noise and interference than

analog signals → are widely used in communication systems.

• Data-logging (saving): the data available from the DT systems

can be stored in a digital server so that the performance of the
system can be monitored over a long period of time.

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1. Basic Sequences Unit Impulse
• Unit Impulse
0, ≠0
=
1, =0

0, ≠ −
− =
1, =

– Since is nonzero (and equal to 1) only for = 0:

– More generally, consider − at = :

– Application: represent other DT sequence:

3 +1 + +2 − 1 + 2 [ − 2]

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1. Basic Sequences Unit Step
• Unit Step
0, <0
=
1, ≥0

0, < −
− =
1, ≥

• Application: rectangular sequence

− −
−

0, ℎ
= =
1, 0≤ ≤ −1
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1. Basic Sequences Unit Impulse and Unit Step
• Close relationship between unit impulse and unit step
– the DT unit impulse is the first difference of the DT unit step

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1. Basic Sequences Unit Impulse and Unit Step
• Close relationship between unit impulse and unit step
– the discrete-time unit step is the running sum of the unit sample

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 1. Basic Sequences Real Exponential
• Real Exponential (both A and α are real ):
= , −∞ < <∞

< −1
Unbounded >1

−1 < <0
Bounded 0< <1

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1. Basic Sequences Complex Exponential
• Complex Exponential:
= , −∞ < < ∞
– If both = | | and = | | are complex, then
( )
= = | | = | |

• Sinusoidal = | | cos + + | | sin +

Example for
<1
xre[n] xim[n]

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2. Operations Elementary operations

• Addition
– Adder

• Multiplication
– Multiplier

• Production
– Productor

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2. Operations Time Reversal
• Time-reversal (folding)
[ ] → [− ]

=0 =0

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2. Operations Time Shifting
• Time-shifting
D
[ ]→ [ ± ]

− : shift to right
[ ]

0
+ : shift to left

0
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2. Operations Decimation
• Decimation
↓
= [ ]
– Take one point for every M point from original sequence

Example for M = 2
– Down sampling

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2. Operations Interpolation
• Interpolation
↑
[ / ], k = nL
=
0, ℎ
– Inserting L-1 points between two points of the original
sequence

Example for L = 2
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2. Operations Time domain transformation
- procedures
• Plot [ + ] from [ ]:
– Express [ + ] as + ;
– Scale [ ] by . The resulting waveform represents
[ ];
– If α is negative, invert the scaled signal [ ] with
respect to the n = 0 axis, which produces the waveform for
[ ];
– Shift the waveform for [ ] by time units (left-hand
side if positive, right-hand side otherwise), which will
result in the required representation.
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2. Operations Time domain transformation
- example
• Plot [−2 − 2] from [ ] as:

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 3. Properties of Signals Odd and Even Signals
For real-valued signals:
• Even signal: if a signal is • Odd signal: if a signal is
identical to its time-reversed opposite to its time-reversed
counterpart, i.e., with its counterpart:
reflection about the origin: = − [− ]
= [− ]

Must be 0 at n=0

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3. Properties of Signals Odd and Even Signals

Important fact: any signal can be

broken into a sum of two signals,
one of which is even and one of
which is odd.

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3. Properties of Signals Conjugate-symmetry
• Conjugate-symmetric sequence: = ∗ [− ];
– Real part: even;
– Imaginary part: odd;
– If x[n] is real, then the symmetric is the same as conjugate-
symmetric, and the signal is an even sequence.

• Conjugate-anti-symmetric sequence: x[n]=-x*[-n]

– Real part: odd;
– Imaginary part: even;
– If x[n] is real, the signal is called anti-symmetric or odd sequence.

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3. Properties of Signals CT vs. DT
• Recall 1: continuous-time complex exponential and sinusoidal
signals’ oscillation rate: the larger the magnitude of frequency
, the higher is the rate of oscillation;

• However, for discrete-time complex exponential and

sinusoidal sequences, frequency’s effect is different
– Consider the discrete-time complex exponential with frequency
+2 : = = = ;
– Therefore, only consider a frequency interval of length 2π, such as
0≤ ≤ 2 or − ≤ ≤ ;
• Increase 0 ≤ ≤ , the rate of oscillation increases;
• Keep increasing π ≤ ≤ 2 , the rate of oscillation decreases.

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3. Properties of Signals Periodicity
• Periodic signals and aperiodic signals
– A signal is periodic with period N (N > 0) if and only if

– The smallest value of N for which the above condition

holds is called the (fundamental) period

– A signal not satisfying the periodicity condition is

called nonperiodic or aperiodic

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3. Properties of Signals CT vs. DT (cont.)
• Recall 2: continuous-time complex exponential and sinusoidal
signals’ periodicity:
= = ( )
Always periodic
= cos( + )
• However, for discrete-time complex exponential and
sinusoidal sequences, they are not always periodic.
– To be periodic with period of N, must have: = ( ), or
equivalently: = 1.
– That is to have: =2 , or equivalently: =2 =2
– Where digital frequency = , a rational number.

– The fundamental period of the signal =

– Assumes that m and N are integers without any factors in common 33
3. Properties of Signals CT vs. DT (cont.)
• Comparison between CT and DT complex exponential signals

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3. Properties of Signals Energy and Power
• The total energy of a signal x[n] is defined by

• The average power of a discrete-time signal [x] is defined by

– For a periodic signal:

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3. Properties of Signals Energy and Power
• Signal energy is:

• Average signal power is:

• Power Signals and Energy Signals:

– An infinite signal with finite average power is called a power signal
• Eg.: A periodic sequence which has a finite average power but infinite energy
• Eg.: A unit step signal
– A finite signal with zero average power is called an energy signal
• Eg.: A finite-length sequence which has finite energy but zero average power

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3. Properties of Signals Energy and Power
• Example 1: consider the following DT sequence:

– Determine if the signal is a power or an energy signal:

• Example 2: consider the following DT sequence:

– Assuming =2 , determine the power of the signal.

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3. Properties of Signals Boundness
• A sequence is bounded if ≤ <∞
– For example: =

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 3. Properties of Signals Summability
• A sequence is absolutely summable if
<∞

0.3 , ≥0
– Eg: = => ∑ 0.3 = = 1.43 < ∞
0, <0 .

• A sequence is square-summable if
<∞

. .
– Eg: ℎ = => ∑ = ∞ not absolutely summable

.
but ∑ = 0.24 < ∞ square summable
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Lect-D1 Practices
• Exercise 1. A DT signal x n is shown on the right:
• Sketch and label carefully each of the following signals:
– a) x n − 2 ;
– b) x 4 − n ;
– c) x 2n ;
– d) x n [2 − ];
– e) x n − 1 [ − 3].

• Exercise 2. Determine the fundamental period of the following

sequence, if its periodic:
– a) x n = ( ) ;
– b) x n = 6 sin 0.2πn − cos(0.25πn + 0.1π);
/
– c) x n = ;
/
– d) x n = .
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