This work represents an impressive, well-thought-out, concise and simplified approach to structural design.

The break-out of simplified load diagrams, appropriate formulae, their application, and material studies,
allow for ease of understanding and retention. This book should be owned by every architectural student,
intern, and practicing architect.
—Wendell C. Edwards, RA, PhD, NCARB, Associate Professor,
New York City College of Technology /
The City University of New York

Using a clear, well thought-out format, this book provides a practical guide for architects to understand
the many aspects of structural design. It incorporates theory, analysis of structural forces, a guide to the
properties of wood, steel and concrete, and a review of design considerations to be addressed. Applying
their extensive practical experience designing buildings and structures, Professors Bedi and Dabby use
multiple case studies to illustrate the process, carefully explaining each step of the structural design
process. The multiple clear diagrams and illustrative sketches, carefully selected photographs, and very
useful reference charts contribute to making this an extremely useful and much needed book.
—Professor Tim Maldonado FARA / Architect,
Former Dean of the School of Technology & Design,
New York City College of Technology / The City University of New York

Structure for Architects offers a comprehensive overview on the principles of design for three major
structural materials: steel, wood and reinforced concrete. The content is presented in a clear, intuitive
and visual manner, and includes valuable case studies that help illustrate and enhance the concepts. An
excellent reference and teaching tool for students of architecture.
—Ivan Markov, PhD, Structural Engineer,
CCNY Spitzer School of Architecture /
The City University of New York

The authors have succeeded in presenting an excellent resource for understanding the fundamental principles
of structural engineering that serves to benefit both practicing architects and architectural students as well
as providing a refresher for more experienced engineers. As technological advancements have moved our
profession to an increased reliance on computerized solutions to complex structural problems, it is important
to maintain touch with basic engineering concepts as applied to the design of steel, wood, and reinforced
concrete framing. This reference book provides a firm platform for achievement of that result.
—Thomas J. Michon, PE, Senior Structural Engineer,
Dormitory Authority of the State of New York (Retired)

Structure for Architects: A Case Study in Steel, Wood, and Reinforced Concrete Design is a descriptive and
well-organized text that outlines the basics of structural design. I was pleasantly surprised by the impact
of the illustrations and their ability to reinforce the content of each chapter. The case studies show the
application of theory and serve as a guide for general design principles. It is a fantastic tool for introducing
architects to the world of structural design.
—Paul Senica, Structural Engineer, Murray Engineering PC,
Engineering Adjunct Faculty, New York Institute of Technology
This volume builds on the authors’ previous Primer to provide a valuable and engaging set of texts for
teaching structures for architecture students. The endeavor has been informed by years of classroom
experience, a passion for the subject, and an intuitive understanding of the power of visual representations
to convey structural principles. The variety and clarity of the many illustrations—photographs, diagrams,
rendered axonometrics, and especially the beautiful and tactile hand sketching—is a great strength of the
book. The authors know how to exploit the curiosity of the visual thinker and invite the type of exploration
that leads to a genuine understanding.
—Shelley E. Smith, PhD, RA, Professor and Former Chair,
Department of Architectural Technology,
New York City College of Technology /
The City University of New York

The case studies illustrate a workflow and parametric thinking that integrates design, structure, and
materials. It is a valuable tool for architects to analyze and solve problems methodically.
—Sanjive Vaidya, RA, Chair of the Department of Architectural Technology,
New York City College of Technology /
The City University of New York
 Structure for Architects
Structure for Architects: A Case Study in Steel, Wood, and Reinforced Concrete Design is a sequel to
the authors’ first text, Structure for Architects: A Primer, emphasizing the conceptual understanding of
structural design in simple language and terms. This book focuses on structural principles applied to the
design of typical structural members—a beam, a girder, and a column—in a diagrammatic frame building.
Through the application of a single Case Study across three key materials, the book illustrates the theory,
principles, and process of structural design. The Case Study progresses step-by-step for each material,
from determining tributary areas and loads through a member’s selection and design.

The book addresses the frequent disparity between the way architects and engineers perceive and process
information, with engineers focusing on technical aspects and architects focusing on visual concepts.
Structure for Architects: A Case Study in Steel, Wood, and Reinforced Concrete Design presents readers
with an understanding of fundamental engineering principles through a uniquely thematic Case Study.
Focusing on the conceptual understanding of structural design, this book will be of interest to architecture
students and professionals looking to understand the application of structural principles in relation to steel,
wood, and concrete design.

Ashwani Bedi is a Professional Engineer and Deputy Director of Engineering with the NYC Department
of Design and Construction. He has over 30 years of experience in the public and private sectors, and
is currently Adjunct Associate Professor at the New York City College of Technology, where he teaches
Structures courses. He is also the co-author of Structure for Architects: A Primer.

Ramsey Dabby is a Registered Architect having served as Chief Architect for the NYC Fire Department,
and previously as Director of Engineering and Construction for the Hertz Corporation. Now retired with
over 40 years’ experience in the public and private sectors, he currently teaches as Adjunct Faculty in the
Architectural Departments of the New York City College of Technology, the City College of New York, and
the New York Institute of Technology. He is also the co-author of Structure for Architects: A Primer.
 Structure for Architects
A CASE STUDY IN STEEL, WOOD, AND REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Ashwani Bedi and

Ramsey Dabby
First published 2020
by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2020 Taylor & Francis

The right of Ashwani Bedi and Ramsey Dabby to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or here-
after invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage
or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bedi, Ashwani, author. | Dabby, Ramsey, author.
Title: Structure for architects : a case study in steel, wood, and reinforced concrete
design / Ashwani Bedi and Ramsey Dabby.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references
and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018057508 | ISBN 9781138554375 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138554382 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315122014 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Structural engineering. | Girders. | Columns.
Classification: LCC TH845 .B43 2019 | DDC 324.102/472—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018057508

ISBN: 978-1-138-55437-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-55438-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-12201-4 (ebk)

Typeset in News Gothic MT

by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 Contents

Prefacexi
Image Credits xiii

1 Introduction to Structural Design 1

1.1 Removing a Bearing Wall 2

2 Structural Design Methodologies 4

2.1 Building Codes and Industry Organizations 4

2.2 Loads 6
2.3 Safety Factors 7

2.4 Load Combinations 7

2.5 Design Methodologies 8

3 Stress, Strain, and Material Behavior 14

3.1 Stress, Strain, and Material Properties 14

3.2 Stress-Strain Curves for Steel, Wood, and Concrete 16

3.3 Elastic/Plastic Material Behavior—An Analogy 22

3.4 Elastic/Plastic Analogy Applied to a Beam 25

vii
 3.5 Section Modulus 27

3.6 Getting Started—Case Study 29

4 Case Study Introduction 31

4.1 Load Combinations 32

4.2 Designing for Beams and Girders 35

4.3 Designing for Columns 41

5 Understanding Steel 44

5.1 Manufacture and Materials 44

5.2 General Design Considerations 48

5.3 Design Considerations for Beams 49

5.4 Design Considerations for Columns 51

6 Design in Steel—Case Study 54

6.1 Assumptions 55

Case Study—Design in Steel (ASD)57

6.2.ASD Beam 3 57

6.3.ASD Girder B 63

6.4.ASD Column B2 67

Case Study—Design in Steel (LRFD)71

6.2.LRFD Beam 3 71

6.3.LRFD Girder B 76

6.4.LRFD Column B2 79

ASD/LRFD Discussion82

7 Understanding Wood 83

7.1 Sawn Lumber—Manufacture and Properties 83

7.2 Sawn Lumber—Design Considerations for Beams 89

viii
 7.3 Sawn Lumber—Design Considerations for Columns 91

7.4 Engineered Lumber—Manufacture and Products 92

7.5 Engineered Lumber—Design Considerations 95

8 Design in Sawn Wood—Case Study 96

8.1 Assumptions 97

Case Study—Design in Sawn Wood100

8.2 Beam 3 100

8.3 Girder B 105

8.4 Column B2 109

9 Design in Engineered Wood—Case Study 113

9.1 Assumptions 114

Case Study—Design in Engineered Wood116

9.2 A Typical Joist 116

9.3 Girder B 119

9.4 Column B2 121

10 Understanding Reinforced Concrete 128

10.1 Materials and Manufacture 128

10.2 Structural Considerations 132

10.3 Design Considerations for Beams 133

10.4 Design Considerations for Columns 148

11 Design in Reinforced Concrete—Case Study 152

11.1 Assumptions 153

Case Study—Design in Reinforced Concrete157

11.2 Beam 3 157

ix
 11.3 Girder B 164

11.4 Column B2 171

12 In Closing175

Glossary177

Appendix 1: The AISC Steel Construction Manual 189

Appendix 2: T
 he National Design Specification (NDS)
Package for Wood Construction 205

Appendix 3: A
 CI 318—Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete 213

Appendix 4: Beam Diagrams and Formulae 217

Index223

Cover Illustration Courtesy of:

Artur Nesterenko Alexandrovich
Archillusion Design and Development
www.archillusion.com

x
 Preface

The underlying idea of Structure for Architects arose from our classroom experi-
ences in the Architectural Technology Department of the New York City College of
Technology. We perceived the need for texts that presented the topic of structures
to architectural students, in a more intuitive and visual manner—and so the con-
cept was born.
Our first text, Structure for Architects: A Primer, presented basic structural princi-
ples laying the groundwork for more advanced studies. In this text, Structure for
Architects: A Case Study in Steel, Wood, and Reinforced Concrete Design, those prin-
ciples are applied to the structural design of typical members—a beam, a girder,
and a column—in a diagrammatic frame building. For each material, the Case
Study progresses in a consistent step-by-step manner—from determining tributary
areas and loads, free-body, shear and moment diagrams, through the selection and
design of members. We’ve assumed the Reader is familiar with basic structural
concepts, and provide only brief recaps where appropriate.
While the information in this text is generally available from a variety of sources,
our goal was to present material in a single source explaining theory and princi-
ples, hopefully providing the Reader with an intuitive understanding of the pro-
cesses and formulae. Of note are the chapters titled “Understanding” that precede
the Case Studies, in which pertinent properties and design information for each
material are presented.
In retrospect we once again realize the very considerable amount of time, patience,
and dedication needed in an effort such as this. We hope to have done it justice.
We wish to acknowledge several people for their contributions to us. Any shortcom-
ings, oversights, or errors that may have occurred are the sole responsibility of the
authors. In no particular order, we sincerely thank:
■
Professor Robert Bunnell, PE, adjunct faculty at Kent State University, Col-
lege of Architecture and Environmental Design, and the University of Akron,

xi
 Department of Civil Engineering. Professor Bunnell’s exhaustive and thoroughly profes-
sional review of the manuscript was invaluable in shedding light on numerous technical
and educational concepts.
■
Professor Sanjive Vaidya, Chair of the Architectural Technology Department at the NYC
College of Technology, for his time and thoughts on the book’s conceptual framework.
■
Professor Tim Maldonado, former Dean of the School of Architecture and Engineering
Technology at the NYC College of Technology, for his perspective, encouragement, and
guidance—and for his vision to pair an engineer and architect in the teaching of Structures.
■
Professor Shelley Smith, former Chair of the Architectural Technology Department at the
NYC College of Technology, for her leadership and dedication to excellence, independent
thought, and creativity.
■
Tom Michon, our dear friend and accomplished structural engineer, for his thorough tech-
nical reviews and support.
■
Richard Gilbert, Principal of BlueShore Engineering, for his practical yet scholarly opinion
on a number of topics.
■
Christian Martos, PE, Principal of Martos Engineering and adjunct faculty at CCNY, for his
easy-to-understand descriptions of NDS Adjustment Factors.
■
Art Lewis, of Weyerhaeuser Corporation, for his support on the engineered wood sections.
■
Zoe van der Meulen and Liz Connor, of Unalam, manufacturers of quality glulam products.
■
Havard Vasshaug and Bad Monkeys for their creative and technical genius, and their
approach to the dissemination and sharing of knowledge.
■
Former student Moe Goldstein for his review from a student’s perspective.
■
Artur Nesterenko Alexandrovich for his cover illustration.
And finally our families who endured our consumed weekends, holidays, and spare time at
their expense. Here’s to them, especially Kiran and Louise Harris, who patiently encouraged
the completion of this work—and to Barbara who is still missed every day.
We welcome and appreciate any comments from the Reader.
Ashwani Bedi, PE ([email protected])
Ramsey Dabby, RA ([email protected])

This text cannot, and makes no attempt to, cover the many complexities that structural engi-
neers routinely encounter. Professional engineering expertise should of course always be
sought as needed.

xii
IMAGE CREDITS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the following for permissions to use their images (Figure
numbers):
American Concrete Institute (Appendix 3 Tables)
American Institute of Steel Construction (Appendix 1 Tables)
American Wood Council (Appendix 2 Tables)
Andrew Haase (4.5)
Buckland Timber (7.14)
Capital Steel & Wire (5.7)
Chicago Architecture Center, George N. Bernard (2.2)
Chirag N. Patel, PhD (10.27)
Clark Hyland, PhD, Hyland Consulting Engineering (10.36)
David Harrington (11.2)
DoITPoMS (www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/wood/printall.php) (7.6)
Havard Vasshaug and Bad Monkeys (10.15)
InterNACHI (10.8)
Nina Edwards Anker, NEA Studio; and Unalam (7.11)
Owens Supply (10.11)
Paolo Rosselli, Studio di Fotografia (1.2)
Portland Cement Association (10.6)
Public Domain (2.1, 2.5, 5.2, 5.3a–b, 5.4–5.6, 7.1)
Robor Steel (5.10)
StructureCraft Builders (7.17)
Swinerton Builders (7.15)
The Liro Group (10.38)
Thyssenkrupp Elevators (2.4)
US Geological Survey (2.6)
WCLIB (7.5)
Weyerhaeuser (7.12, 7.13, Tables 9.1–9.5)

xiii
 1
Introduction to
Structural Design

One of the earliest and most important engineering decisions on a project is to

select a structural system that is compatible and consistent with the architectural
intent. On some projects, the structural system may conform to the architectural
expression and simply be a concealed means of support (Figure 1.1). On other
projects, the structural system may be the actual architectural expression and be
celebrated for itself (Figure 1.2). In any case, the selection of an appropriate struc-
tural system is a matter of discussion and close coordination between architect
and structural engineer, keeping in mind the best interests of the project.
Whatever the structural system and however it may be expressed, the structure must
be designed to satisfy the conditions of stability, strength, serviceability, economy,
and sustainability—not only as a whole, but also for its individual components.

Figure 1.1 Apartment Figure 1.2 Bach de Roda Bridge, Barcelona -

Building, Fort Lee - Structure Structure as Architectural Form
as Concealed Support

1
With a good general understanding of how structural members behave under load, the Reader
is ready to undertake their design.

The structural design of a member simply means the selection of an appropriate material
and cross-sectional shape to safely and economically resist the load demands, to which the
member will be subjected.

1.1 REMOVING A BEARING WALL

Let’s use a simple example to get a sense of this statement.
Say you’re renovating the basement of a house and
want to open up the room, column-free, by remov-
ing a bearing wall that runs down the middle of the
space (Figure 1.3). Since the bearing wall is sup-
porting the first floor joists above, you know that
with the bearing wall removed, you’ll have to sup-
port the loads from the joists with a new girder.
Since the floor-to-floor height is limited, headroom
clearance is a concern.

Figure 1.3 Basement Plan

Option 1

Your first instinct, for reasons of structural efficiency, practicality, and cost may be to design
a deep and narrow girder in wood—but you’re concerned that the girder may be too deep for
sufficient headroom.

Option 2

You realize however, that you can increase headroom by compromising structural efficiency
and making the wood girder shallower and wider.

Option 3

It now occurs to you to design the girder in steel, knowing that steel has significantly greater
strength than wood, thereby making it feasible to design a shallow steel girder providing the
needed headroom—but is likely that this will be a more expensive solution (Figure 1.4).

2
Figure 1.4 Girder Options

Once you calculate the loads on the girder, and determine the moment and shear that the
girder must resist, you’ll have the basic information needed to design the beam—but which
option is the right choice?
This example illustrates the fundamental challenge of design—to use judgment and experi-
ence to reach a decision when there are multiple options that can satisfy the design intent.
The decision of whether to design the girder in wood or steel is a matter of preference of the
designer based on the availability and economy of the materials, and ease of construction—
all of which may vary for any particular situation. In the end, you as the designer must evalu-
ate the key properties of a member that will provide the strength to safely and economically
carry the anticipated loads. Specifically, you must decide upon a member’s material and
cross-sectional shape.

3
 2
Structural Design
Methodologies

2.1 BUILDING CODES AND INDUSTRY ORGANIZATIONS

Building codes are a set of rules that provide the public with a minimum accept-
able level of performance for buildings and other structures. Their main purpose
is to protect public health, safety, and welfare as they relate to a structure’s con-
struction and occupancy.
The advent of building codes is generally traced to Hammurabi’s Code during the
Babylonian Empire around 1700 bc (Figure 2.1). The earliest known building codes
in the United States were established in the 1600s, but it wasn’t until the 1800s
that larger US cities began adopting building codes, spurred largely by catastro-
phes like the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 (Figure 2.2). These early versions have
developed into the building codes in use today.
Until recently, the United States followed various local and regional codes such as
the BOCA National Building Code, the Uniform Building Code, and the Standard
Building Code. Variations within these codes, along with the desire to have a unified

Figure 2.1 Hammurabi’s Code Figure 2.2 1871 Chicago Fire

4
building code, gave birth to the International Code Council (ICC) in 1994 that was comprised
of officials representing all three codes. The ICC published the first edition of the Interna-
tional Building Code (IBC) in 2000, with updated revisions in subsequent years. Based on the
IBC, cities and states develop and adopt their own ‘governing’ codes that reflect their own
specific conditions and requirements.
Along with the development of building codes, advances in the science and behavior of various
construction materials (such as steel, wood, and concrete) led to the formation of ‘Societies’,
‘Institutes’, and ‘Councils’ comprised of industry manufacturers, academic and practicing
professionals. These organizations evolved into technical authorities in their fields, perform-
ing research, providing guidelines, and becoming references for the various building codes.
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), the American Wood Council (AWC), and
the American Concrete Institute (ACI) are the recognized respective authorities governing the
design, construction, and use of steel, wood, and concrete. These organizations produce var-
ious technical publications that are adopted by reference in various codes, and accepted as
industry standards for the proper and safe use of these materials. These publications include:
■
the AISC Steel Construction Manual (see Appendix 1)
■
the National Design Specification (NDS) Package for Wood Construction (see Appendix 2)
■
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete—ACI 318 (see Appendix 3)
Other important organizations such as the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) are also recognized authorities that support the civil engineering profession
by providing technical publications and reports on technical matters.
Figure 2.3 gives a general sense of the interaction of codes and various technical organizations.

Figure 2.3 Codes and Technical Organizations

5
2.2 LOADS
There are many types of loads on a structure, which can be broadly classified as dead, live,
and environmental.

Dead Loads

Dead loads are fixed and of constant magni-

tude. They include predictable factors such
as floor and wall construction, partitions,
ceiling and floor finishes, mechanical/
plumbing/electrical, and other fixed equip-
ment (Figure 2.4). The weights of construc-
tion materials are available from various
sources, including the AISC Manual.

Figure 2.4 Dead Load—elevator machinery

Live Loads

Live loads are temporary, transient, and

variable. They include things such as peo-
ple, furniture and equipment, vehicles, and
stored goods. Live loads are typically mea-
sured in pounds per square foot (psf) and
are given in local building codes accord-
ing to the specific use and occupancy of a
building (Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Live Load—runners on a bridge

Environmental Loads

Environmental loads are really live loads,

but those resulting from the effects of nat-
ural phenomena. They vary based upon
the geographic location of the structure,
and include things such as rain, ice, snow,
wind, and seismic activity (earthquakes)
(Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6 Earthquake Damage

6
In the analysis of forces on a struc-
ture, loads are often also categorized
as static and dynamic.
Static refers to gravity-type forces
such as the dead loads previously
mentioned and some of the live and
environmental loads such as human
occupancy, moveable furniture and
equipment, stored goods, and snow.
Dynamic refers to forces that are
sudden over limited periods of
time such as wind, seismic activity,
impact, machinery vibrations, mov-
ing vehicles, and elevators.
Ultimately all loads are treated as
forces and/or moments that act ver- Figure 2.7 Loads on a Structure
tically or horizontally (Figure 2.7).

2.3 SAFETY FACTORS

Uncertainties are inherent in the design and construction process since it is not possible to
calculate with absolute accuracy the strength of materials, the loads, and the varying quality
of construction. Load calculations performed by designers can only be an estimate of the
loads to which a structure will be subjected. Codes allow for uncertainties by providing for
margins of safety in the form of safety factors. Safety factors provide a degree of reliability
against failure by allowing for unavoidable variations between estimated and actual condi-
tions. Safety factors are applied to a material’s strength (reducing it) and/or to the loads
(generally increasing them).
The actual loads on a structure, without the application of safety factors, are referred to as
service loads.

2.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS

While several types of loads (dead, live, snow, rain, ice, wind, seismic activity, etc.) can act on
a structure, it’s highly unlikely they would all act simultaneously and/or at full magnitude. For
example, it is extremely improbable that live loads would be at their maximum with a major
snowstorm, hurricane, and earthquake all occurring at the same time. On the other hand, the
design must account for the load combination that has the most critical effect. So the ques-
tion becomes how to combine loads reasonably.
The IBC, ASCE 7 (Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures), and vari-
ous other applicable building codes, prescribe load combinations to determine the appro-
priate loading to use. These load combinations vary based upon the design methodology
being used. Structures must be designed to resist the most critical effects from the load
combinations.

7
In the load combinations, each service load is multiplied by a load factor reflecting the uncer-
tainty of that particular load. With a load factor applied, the resulting load is called a factored
load. The load combinations resulting in the most critical effect are then used to compute the
moments, shears, and other forces in the structure.
In general, the load combination with highest value will govern. However some load combina-
tions account for the possibility of overturning and uplift, and will govern in those situations.
This is particularly applicable to tall structures where high lateral loads are present. The
Reader is referred to more advanced texts for such situations. We’ll see the application of load
combinations in subsequent chapters.

2.5 DESIGN METHODOLOGIES

Design methodologies are recognized approaches to the design of structural members. Var-
ious design methodologies have evolved over time, and continue to do so as more research
is done and knowledge gained. These methodologies and their terminologies may appear to
overlap somewhat in meaning and approach, sometimes tending to cause a degree of confu-
sion. In this chapter we’ll examine the various methodologies to help bring them into focus,
but for now simply note that they are separate and distinct approaches that must be consis-
tently followed without mixing or matching parts and formulae.

Limit-State Design Principles—Strength and Serviceability

Design methodologies are based on limit-state design principles, which define the boundaries
of structural usefulness in terms of strength and serviceability. Strength limit-states relate to
a structure’s load-carrying capability and safety. Serviceability limit-states relate to a struc-
ture’s performance under normal service conditions—i.e., the conditions for which it has been
designed.
Serviceability can be considered a measure of the ‘comfort level’ of the building inhabitants
and, among other things, involves checking that beam deflections and vibrations are within
allowable limits. Structures must be designed so that no applicable strength or serviceability
limit-states are exceeded.

Terminology

The following terminology will be frequently used throughout the text:

Service loads The loads on a structure, without the application of load factors.
Factored loads The loads on a structure, after the application of load factors.
Design loads The loads obtained from the governing load combinations.
Yield stress The stress at which a material begins to exhibit excessive and permanent
deformation, and can no longer perform as intended.

8
 Actual stress The stress in a structural member created by the design loads.
Allowable stress The stress permitted in a structural member, after the application of safety
factors.
Nominal strength The strength of a structural member, before the application of safety factors.
Available strength The strength of a structural member, after the application of safety factors.
Design strength The Load and resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and Strength Design term for
“available strength”.
Allowable strength The Allowable Strength Design (ASD) term for “available strength”.
Required strength The strength needed by a structural member to support the design loads.
Capacity A term synonymous with “available strength”.

Stress and Strength-Based Methodologies

Design methodologies are fundamentally either

stress-based or strength-based.
A stress-based methodology involves assuring
that a member’s allowable stress is equal to or
greater than the actual stress (Figure 2.8a).
A strength-based methodology involves assur- Figure 2.8a Stress-based Methodology
ing that a member’s available strength is
equal to or greater than the required strength
(Figure 2.8b).

Figure 2.8b Strength-based Methodology

Allowable Stress Design

Background
Allowable Stress Design is the traditional approach dating from the early 1800s, in which
safety factors are empirically derived. It is still in use today due to its conceptual simplicity
and familiarity.

Concept
As a stress-based methodology, Allowable Stress Design involves assuring that a member’s
actual stress is less than or equal to the allowable stress. The allowable stress is determined by
multiplying the material yield stress by a safety factor (less than 1), thereby reducing it. The
actual stress is determined from the governing load combinations (Figure 2.9).

9
Figure 2.9 Allowable Stress Design

The relationship between allowable stress and actual stress can be expressed by:

f ≤ F′ where:
f     = actual stress
F′ = allowable stress

Use
■
Allowable Stress Design is a recognized methodology for wood design.
■
Allowable Stress Design is often referred to as Working Stress Design when used for cer-
tain types of concrete design.

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

Background
Load and Resistance Factor Design was introduced in the 1980s by the AISC as an alternative,
more rational, and exact method for steel design than Allowable Stress Design. This method-
ology resulted in potential economies in the design of members. With the development and
adoption of LRFD, both LRFD and Allowable Stress Design became recognized methodologies
for steel design until Allowable Strength Design superseded Allowable Stress Design.

Concept
As a strength-based methodology, LRFD involves assuring that a member’s available strength
is equal to or greater than the required strength. The available strength (termed design strength
in LRFD) is determined by multiplying the material nominal strength by a resistance factor
(less than 1), thereby reducing it. The required strength is determined from the governing load
combinations (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10 Load and Resistance Factor Design

10