Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 1
Manufacturing Process
An Overview

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• recognize and understand a broad range of manufacturing processes used in the

industry.;
• learn about common bulk metal deformation processes, sheet metal forming,
important non-traditional processes, and plastic fabrication processes.

1.1 Introduction
Manufacturing is the term used to describe the making of products. The product design
and manufacturing disciplines are closely related because consideration of how a
component is to be manufactured is often a defining criterion for successful design. The
industrial revolution during the second half of the nineteenth century introduced
manufacturing mechanization. The use of machines for spinning and weaving in the
textile industry is generally acknowledged to be the beginning of modern manufacturing.
By the end of the nineteenth century, basic machines were available for many elementary
metal-forming operations. Furthermore, the development of the manufacturing activity
has progressed rapidly during the last 100 years, and is now a multidisciplinary process
involving design, processing, quality control, planning, marketing and cost accounting.
As the industrial revolution progressed, many metal processes came into widespread use
simply because they worked. The continuing widespread use of the development of many
metal shaping processes preceded theories or models to explain why they work.
However, a thorough understanding is still not always possible because of the complexity
and interdisciplinary nature of the many processes of interest. Consequently, many
operator-derived rules, combined with some fundamentals, have evolved into
semiempirical engineering relationships that are still used.

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Manufacturing processes is a fundamental subject since it is of interest not only to
mechanical engineers but also to those from particularly every discipline of engineering.
All kinds of the engineers must know the basic requirements of activities in term of man,
machine, material, methods, money and other infrastructure facilities, and other support
services to effectively adjust the total production of a manufacturing unit. For various
products such as a plant machinery required for chemical, civil, electrical, electronic,
textile, etc., the manufacturing process forms a vital ingredient.
The word ‘manufacturing’ is derived from the two Latin words ‘manus’ means hand, and
‘factus’ means make or made; thus, the derivation of the word ‘manufacture’ reflects its
original meaning: to make something by hand. Now, manufacture means to make goods
and wares by industrial processes.
Therefore, it is generally understood that the manufacturing discipline has existed in
various forms since the tool age. Until the nineteenth century it was largely an activity
reserved for craftsmen. Currently, manufacturing is a branch of industry which accounts
for the application of tools and a processing medium to the transformation of raw
materials into finished goods for sale. This effort includes all intermediate processes
required for the production and integration of a product's components. It can be defined
as the transformation of raw materials into useful products through the use of the easiest
and least expensive method.
The fundamental goal of manufacturing process is to produce a product that has a useful
form. Manufacturing process is one of the important steps in production process. It
mainly concerns with the change of form of material or dimensions of the part being
produced. The three different types of functions that involve in manufacturing process
are as follows:
• change the physical properties of the raw material.
• change the shape and size of the work piece.
• produce required dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Manufacturing process is basically a complex activity, concerned with people who've a
broad number of disciplines and expertise and a wide range of machinery, tools, and
equipment with numerous levels of automation, such as computers, robots, and other
equipment.
Similarly, the alternative word of manufacturing is production, is the act of making
things; in particular, the process of converting raw material into finished products is
called as the production process. The graphical presentation of the production process is
shown in Fig. 1.1. In this production process, different types of machines, tools,
equipment are used to produce the finished good.
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Inputs Materials Transformation Outputs

• Men • Shape • Finish Goods
• Machine • Size • Service
• Material • Forms
• Waste
• Methods • Add
• Scrap
• Money • Remove

Feed back

Fig. 1.1 Basic manufacturing process.

Several types of manufacturing processes are applied in production process based on the
nature of work and ultimate resultant finished goods required. Therefore, the production
decisions concentrate on-
• what goods to produce,
• how to produce them,
• the costs of producing them, and
• optimizing the mix of resource inputs used in their production.
Manufacturing operations can be generally classified into primary and secondary
processes. For metals, primary manufacturing usually refers to the conversion of ores
into metallic materials. Secondary manufacturing is generally understood to mean the
conversion of the products from the primary operation into semi-finished or finished
parts. For example, the refining steel from iron ore or aluminium from bauxite is termed
as primary operation, and the fabrication of automobile engine blocks from a pre-shaped
iron or aluminium part is said to be secondary manufacturing. However, it is often
difficult to classify a particular metal shaping operation as either a primary or secondary
process in an absolute sense, as it can be difficult to explain between the various steps
within an integrated manufacturing process.
A good purchased as a ‘raw material’ goes into the manufacture of a product. A good
only partially completed during the manufacturing process is called ‘work in progress’
or ‘semi-finished good’. When the good is completed as to manufacturing but not yet
sold or distributed to the end-user is called a finished good.

1.2 Classification of Manufacturing Processes

There are a large number of processes available for manufacture to engineers. These
processes can be broadly divided into two basic types:
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 A. processing operations, and
B. assembly operations.
A processing operation transform a work material from one state of completion to a more
advanced state that has a closer to the final desired product. It adds value by changing
the geometry, property, or appearance of the raw materials. On the other hand, an
assembly operation joins two or more components in order to create a new entity, which
is called an assembly, or sub-assembly, or some other term that refers to the joining
process (for example, a welded assembly is called a weldment).
Casting and
molding

Particulate
processing
Shaping
process
Deformation
process

Material removal

Processing Property
operations enhancing Heat treatment
process

Cleaning and
surface
treatment
Surface
processing
operations Coating and
deposition
Manufacturing
process
processes

Welding

Permanent Brazing &

joining soldering
process

Assembly Adhesive
operations bonding

Thread
fasteners
Mechanical
fastening Permanent
fastening

Fig. 1.2 Classification of manufacturing processes.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

A general model of processing operation is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. A processing operation

uses energy in the form of mechanical, electrical, thermal, or chemical. Three categories
of processing operations are distinguished as:
i. Shaping operations,
ii. Property enhancing operations, and
iii. Surface finishing operations.
Shaping operations alter the geometry of the starting work material by various methods.
These shaping operations include:
i. Casting, molding, and other processes ― in which the raw material is heated to
liquid or semifluid, as shown in Fig. 1.3(a).
ii. Particulate processing ― the starting material is a powder, and the powders are
formed and heated into the desired shape.
iii. Deformation process ― the starting material is a ductile solid (commonly metal),
which is deformed to shape the part, shown in Fig. 1.3(b).
iv. Material removal process ― the starting material is a solid (ductile or brittle) from
which material is removed so that the resulting part has the desired shape or
geometry.

Pouring ladle F
Punch

Molten metal
Sheet metal

Mold (sand) Die

Fig. 1.3 Metal shaping process, (a) casting, and (b) bending.
Property enhancing operations add value to the material by improving its physical
properties without changing its shape. Heat treatment is most common example. These
processes do not alter the shape of the party, such as annealing, strengthening, sintering
of powdered metals, etc.
Surface finishing operations are performed to clean, treat, coat, or deposit material onto
the exterior surface of the work. Common examples of coating are electroplating,
anodizing of aluminum, organic coating (i.e., painting), and porcelain enameling and
painting.
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The second basic type of manufacturing operation is assembly, in which two or more
separate parts are joined to form a new entity. Components of new entity are connected
together either permanently or temporarily. Permanent joining includes welding, brazing,
soldering, and adhesive bonding. They form a joint between components that cannot be
easily disconnected. The use of screw, bolts, nuts, and other threaded fasteners are
important traditional methods for temporary assembly.

1.3 Bulk Deformation Processes

Plastic deformation is the deformation which is permanent and beyond the elastic range
of the material. Most metallic materials are subjected to plastic forming during some part
of the manufacturing cycle. Metals are worked by plastic deformation because of the
beneficial effect that is imparted to the mechanical properties by it. Deformation results
from the use of a set of tools, usually called die and punch in metal forming. A stress that
exceeds the yield strength of the metal is applied, and the metal deforms to take a shape
determined by the geometry of the die. Stresses applied to plastically deform the metal
are usually compressive. However, some forming processes also use stretch and shear
stresses to the metal.
Metal forming processes can be classified into two basic categories: bulk deformation
processes and sheet metalworking processes. The fundamental difference between these
two generic processes is that in bulk forming the whole volume of the workpiece is
deformed, whereas in sheet metal forming there is only localized plastic deformation,
typically involving a change in sheet thickness. The major bulk deformation processes
are illustrated in Fig. 1.4. They include rolling, forging, extrusion, and wire drawing.
• Rolling: Compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a plate is
reduced by squeezing it through two rotating cylindrical rolls.
• Forging: The work piece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work.
• Extrusion: The work material is forced to flow through a die opening taking its
shape.
• Drawing: The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening (bar drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing).
The deformation may occur in all regions of the workpiece concurrently, as in forging,
or sequentially, as in rolling, extrusion or drawing. All the bulk deformation processes
require contact between the working surfaces (dies or rolls) and the workpiece. The size
of the workpiece can vary from less than a few grams to ingots of many tons.

6 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Fig. 1.4 Basic bulk formation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion, and (d) drawing.

The input material is in billet, rod, or slab form, and a considerable increase in the
surface-to-volume ratio occurs in the formed part. A sequence of such processes is
generally used to form material progressively from a simple geometry into a complex
shape. The tool, usually die, represent the desired geometry, and impart compressive or
tensile stresses to the deforming material through the tool-material interfaces. However,
deformation processes are frequently used in conjunction with other unit operations, such
as casting, machining, grinding, and heat treating, to complete the transformation from
raw material to finished parts.
Metals can be formed either hot (above the recrystallization temperature) or cold. The
division is on the basis of the amount of heating applied to the metal before applying the
mechanical force. Those processes, working above the recrystallisation temperature, are
termed as hot-working processes whereas those below are termed as cold-working
processes. Greater deformation is possible and lower forming energies are required
during hot working. However, cold forming produces improved surface finish and
increases the strength of the product due to strain hardening.
The deformation of metals, which is caused by the displacement of the atoms, is achieved
by one or both of the processes called slip and twinning. When plastic deformation
occurs, the metal appears to flow in along a specific direction depending on the type of
processing operations and the direction of force applied. The crystals or grains of the
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metal are elongated in the direction of metal flow, then, it would be able to offer more
resistance to stresses acting across them. Therefore, it is possible to control the flow lines
in any specific direction by careful manipulation of the applied forces. The details of bulk
deformation are discussed in Lectures 2-4.

1.4 Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Sheet metal is generally considered to be a plate with thickness less than about 5 mm.
Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered
foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 5 mm (0.2 in) are considered plate. It is one of the
fundamental forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of
different shapes. By doing so, the sheet can be bent or stretched into a variety of complex
shapes. In the sheet metal forming processes, a force is applied to a piece of sheet metal
to modify its geometry rather than remove any material. The applied force stresses the
metal beyond its yield strength, causing the material to plastically deform, but not to fail.
The importance of sheet forming is due to the availability of high quality and relatively
low cost flat-rolled metal strip. Typically, sheet metal is produced by high speed cold
rolling of coils, which may weigh from several kilograms to several thousand tons. The
subsequent localized deformation of the cold rolled strip by sheet metal working
techniques produces many useful shapes, such as car body parts, food or beverage
containers, window screen frames and countless other products.
Sheet metal forming consists of three basic processes:
• cutting to form a shape (blank),
• forming by bending and stretching, and
• finishing.
The various cutting and stretching operations carried out by press tools are classified on
the basis of the type of stresses introduced into the component. Generally, the sheet metal
forming processes include the following operations: bending, roll forming, spinning,
deep drawing, stretch forming, etc.
When the metal is deformed, it is first elastically deformed and then plastically. When
the applied load is removed, the plastic component of the deformation remains
permanently while elastic part springs back to its original shape. This can be
schematically observed from the stress-strain diagram shown in Fig. 1.5. In the stress-
strain diagram, a stress OA is applied on the material so that it reaches the point P and
has a strain of OB under the load. When the load is removed, the material springs back
to the position C, finally with a permanent deformation of OC only. The amount CB is
the amount of spring back. The amount of spring back is the property of the material
8 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

which depends on the modulus of elasticity. Higher the modulus of elasticity, lower
would be the spring back. However, it is very difficult to estimate theoretically, the actual
amount of spring.

Fig. 1.5 Spring back effect in the tensile stress-strain diagram for a mild steel.

Formability is a measure of the relative ease with which a metal can be plastically
deformed. The measurement of formability is, unfortunately, considerably more difficult
than the definition. The process of sheet forming is based on the skills developed by these
early artisans and many modern sheet forming techniques still rely on skilled operators.
However, the increasing demand for rapid and successful product and process
development requires analytical techniques to predict anticipated performance.
Therefore, the basic mechanics and processing operations of sheet forming operations
are dealt with in Lectures 5-7.

1.5 Thread and Gear Manufacturing

Production of screw threads is of prime importance to engineers because nearly every
piece of equipment has some form of screw thread. Machine parts are held together,
adjusted, or moved by screw threads of many sizes and kinds. Screw threads are
commonly used as fasteners, to transmit power or motion, and for adjustment. Different
thread forms (V, square, acme) and thread series (coarse, fine, and so on) are available.
The screw threads used in manufacturing should conform to an established standard to
be interchangeable and replaceable.
Threads can be produced in a number of ways. The manner of producing them depends
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 on many factors such as the cost and use of the threaded workpiece, the equipment
available, the number of parts to be made, the location of the threaded portion, the
smoothness and accuracy desired, and the material to be used. Methods of thread
manufacturing are discussed in Lecture 8.
On the other hand, gears are basically wheels having, on its periphery, equispaced teeth
which are so designed that those wheels transmit, without slip, rotary motion smoothly
and uniformly with minimum friction and wear at the mating tooth –profiles. To achieve
those favorable conditions, most of the gears have their tooth form based on involute
curve, which can simply be defined as locus of a point on a straight line which is rolled
on the periphery of a circle or Locus of the end point of a stretched string while its
unwinding over a cylinder.
Gears of various type, size and material are widely used in several machines and systems
requiring positive and stepped drive. The major applications are:
• Speed gear box, feed gear box and some other kinematic units of machine tools;
• Speed drives in textile, jute and similar machineries;
• Gear boxes of automobiles;
• Speed and /or feed drives of several metal forming machines;
• Machineries for mining, tea processing etc.;
• Large and heavy-duty gear boxes used in cement industries, sugar industries,
cranes, conveyors etc.;
• Precision equipments, clocks and watches;
• Industrial robots and toys.
Gears are classified according to their configuration, axes of transmission, pattern of
motion, so the manufacturing processes gears are discussed in Lecture 9.

1.6 Non-traditional Machining Process

During recent decades, engineering materials have been greatly developed. The cutting
speed and the material removal rate when machining such materials using traditional
methods like turning, milling, grinding, and so on tend to fall. In many cases, it is
impossible to machine hard materials to certain shapes using these traditional methods.
Sometimes, the traditional methods are unsuitable to machine such materials
economically because most of these materials are harder than the materials available for
use as cutting tools.
By adopting a unified program, utilizing the results of basic and applied research, it is
now become possible to process many of the engineering materials that were formerly
considered to be unmachinable using traditional methods; the newly developed
Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

machining processes are often called modern machining processes or nontraditional

machining processes (NTMP), or nonconventional machining processes. These are
nontraditional in the sense that traditional tools are not employed; instead, energy in its
direct form is utilized.
The term nontraditional machining refers to this group that removes excess material by
various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy or
combinations of these energies. They do not use a sharp cutting tool in the conventional
sense. The requirements, the resulting commercial and technological importance of the
nontraditional processes, include:
• Need to machine newly developed metals and nonmetals.
• These new materials often have special properties (e.g., high strength, high
hardness, high toughness) that make them difficult or impossible to machine by
conventional methods.
• The need for unusual and/or complex part geometries that cannot easily be
accomplished and in some cases are impossible to achieve by conventional
machining.
• The need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses created by
conventional machining.
The NTMP have specifically the following characteristics as compared to traditional
processes:
• Capable of machining a wide spectrum of metallic and nonmetallic materials
irrespective of hardness or strength.
• Hardness of cutting tools is of no relevance; especially in much of NTMP, there
is no physical contact between the work and the tool.
• Complex and intricate shapes in hard and extra-hard materials can be readily
produced with high accuracy and surface quality and without burrs.
• Simple kinematic movements are needed in equipments.
• Micro- and miniature holes and cavities can be readily produced by NTMP.
The NTM processes are often classified according to principal form of energy used to
effect material removal. Four types are:
• Mechanical: Mechanical energy in some form, usually erosion, other than the
action of a conventional cutting tool. Examples include, Abrasive jet machining
(AJM), Water jet machining (WJM), Ultrasonic machining (USM), Abrasive
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 water jet machining (AWJM), Abrasive force machining (AFM), etc.
• Electrical: Use of electrochemical energy to remove material; the mechanism is
the reverse of electroplating.
• Thermal: Processes use thermal energy to cut or shape the workpart. The thermal
energy is applied to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization.
• Chemical. Most materials are susceptible to chemical attack by certain acids or
other etchants, so, chemicals selectively remove material from portions of the
workpart.
The nontraditional processes included in the syllabus are discussed in Lectures 10-15.

1.7 Non-conventional Joining Processes

Welding is a fabrication technique where the interfaces of the two parts to be joined is
brought to a temperature above the melting point and then allowed to solidify so that a
permanent joining takes place. To join metals by applying heat, sometimes with pressure
and sometimes with an intermediate or filler metal having a high melting point. Because
of the permanent nature of the joint and strength being equal to or sometimes greater than
that of the parent metal makes welding one of the most extensively used fabrication
method.
Welding is not only used for making structures but also for repair work such as the joining
of broken castings. Products obtained by the process of welding are called ‘weldments’.
A fairly large number of industrial components are made by welding processes. But, the
choice of a particular fabrication method depends on a number of factors pertaining to
the joint.
There are two broad categories, conventional welding processes, and non-conventional
welding processes. Among the different nonconventional welding processes, LASER
beam welding, Electron beam welding, and Submerged arc welding are discussed in
Lecture 16, 17 and 18, respectively.

1.8 Plastic Products Manufacturing Processes

A plastic is an organic material which, at some stage in its existence is capable of flow
and which, upon application of heat and pressure, can be made to flow and acquire the
desired shape. Plastics are composed of long molecular chains which produce many of
the properties the plastics have. Plastics may be divided into two basic types: (i)
thermoplastics, and (ii) thermosetting plastics, also called thermosets.
i. Thermoplastics, can be softened by application of heat and pressure and reformed
Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

into another shape. Typical examples of familiar thermoplastics are: acrylics

(Perspex and Plexiglas), PVC, polystyrene, polythene, PTFE, nylon,
polypropylene and fluorocarbons.
ii. Thermosetting plastics, undergo an irreversible chemical change when they are
subjected to heat and pressure. Unlike thermoplastics, they cannot be reused
because, as the initial chemical composition is permanently changed by
polymerization, further working of the material is impossible. Typical examples
of common thermosets are: Bakelite, polyesters, melamine and epoxy resins such
as Araldite.
The fundamental difference between these two families of plastics be understood as it
significantly influences the way in which each can be processed. There are a wide variety
of processes available for making components from plastics, but the most commonly
used processes are compression and transfer molding for processing thermosetting
plastics. For thermoplastics, the more important processing techniques are extrusion,
injection, blow molding, and calendaring; other processes are thermoforming, slush
molding, and spinning. The details about the plastic processing are discussed in Lecture
15-25.

1.9 Lecture Summary

The ‘Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II’ is divided into six parts and twenty-five
lectures. Lecture 1 introduces the reader to the fundamentals of manufacturing processes,
what manufacturing is, how it can be classified, a brief description of the overview of
different processes included in the Syllabus.
Manufacturing engineers and technical staffs in industry must know about various
manufacturing processes, materials being processed, tools and equipments for the
fabrication of different components or products. All these processes used in
manufacturing concern may be classified into six major groups as primary shaping
processes, secondary machining processes, metal forming processes, joining processes,
surface finishing processes and processes effecting change in properties. Primary shaping
processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous material. Secondary
processes are a large number of components require further processing after the primary
processes. These components are subjected to one or more number of machining
operations in machine shops, to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on
flat and cylindrical jobs. The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material
from the workpiece or job or component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool
is known as machining.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 2
Bulk Deformation Process
Forging
At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:
• understand the common bulk metal deformation processes;
• learn about different types of forging, their use and practical applications;
• understand different allowances used in forging and learn forging problems.

2.1 Introduction
Forging is the metal forming operation where the metal is heated and then a force is
applied to manipulate the metal in such a way that the required final shape is obtained. It
is the oldest of the metal-working processes known to mankind, dating back to perhaps
5000 B.C. It was used in ancient Egypt, Greece, Persia, India, China, and Japan to make
weapons, jewelry, and a variety of implements. This technique was used in the fabrication
of coins around 800 B.C.E. The blacksmith’s trade remained unchanged for many
centuries until the drop hammer with guided ram was introduced near the end of the
eighteenth century. Today, forging is an important industrial process used to make a
variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and other applications.
These components include engine crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft
structural components, and jet engine turbine parts. In addition, steel and other basic
metals industries use forging to establish the basic form of large components that are
subsequently machined to final shape and dimensions.
Forging is generally a hot or warm-working operation, owing to the significant
deformation demanded by the process and the need to reduce strength and increase
ductility of the work metal, However, cold forging is also very common for certain
products.

2.2 Forging Types

Forging is carried out in many different ways. Two types of operations are used in forging
in order to arrive at the final object configuration. They are:

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 1. Drawing out: This is the operation in which the metal gets elongated with a
reduction in the cross-sectional area. For this purpose, the force is to be applied in
a direction, perpendicular to the length axis.
2. Upsetting: This is the operation in which the force is applied to increase the cross-
sectional area of the stock at the expense of its length. To achieve the upsetting,
force is applied in a direction parallel to the length axis.
The mechanical properties of forged parts are better than those of cast or machined parts.
This is due to the formation of a grain structure which is elongated in the direction of
deformation, causing the macrostructure shown in Fig. 2.1.

(a) Forging: true grain flow (b) Machining: broken grain flow (c) Casting: no regular grain flow

Fig. 2.1 Comparison of grain structure resulting from (a)forging, (b) machining, and (c) casting.

Forging builds in a natural advantageous anisotropy with high mechanical properties in

the plane of maximum strain, but perhaps inferior properties across the thickness.
Furthermore, because of the manipulative ability of the forging process, it is possible to
closely control the grain flow in the specific direction, such that the best mechanical
properties can be obtained. For example, in the mechanical sections shown in Fig. 2.2,
the grain pattern is obtained by drawing out in (a), and is obtained by upsetting in (b).
The upsetting process provides the radial grain flow, which is essential for good strength
in gear teeth for severe applications.

Fig. 2.2 Grain flow directions obtained in forging by: (a)upsetting, and (b) drawing out forging.

One way to classify the forging operations is by working temperature. On the basis of
working temperature, forgings are classified as:
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

1. Hot or warm forging: Hot forging involves prior heating of the billet to a
temperature above its recrystallization temperature. This reduces strength and
increases ductility of the metal, permitting more extreme size reductions and more
complex shapes.
2. Cold forging: Cold forging involves no heating or prior heating of the billet to a
temperature much below its recrystallization temperature. This process is
generally used to produce discrete parts, and offers increased strength due to strain
hardening, close tolerances, improved surface finish, and absence of oxide layers.
Another way to classify the forging operations is the degree to which the flow of the work
metal is constrained by the dies. There are three types of forging operations are:
1. Open-die forging, the work is compressed between two flat dies (shown in Fig,
2.3a), thus allowing the metal to flow without constraint in a lateral direction
relative to the die surfaces.
2. Impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape or impression that is
imparted to the work during compression (shown in Fig, 2.3b), thus constraining
metal flow to a significant degree.
3. Flashless forging, the work is completely constrained within the die (shown in
Fig, 2.3c) and no excess flash is produced. The volume of the starting workpiece
must be controlled very closely so that it matches the volume of the die cavity.

Fig 2.3 Three types of forging operations: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die forging, and
(c) flashless forging.

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Based on the methods used, there are four types of forging, these are:
1. Smith forging: This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in open
dies by the village black smith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by
power hammers.
2. Drop forging: This is the operation done in closed impression dies by means of
the drop hammers. Here the force for shaping the component is applied in a series
of blows.
3. Press forging: Similar to drop forging, the press forging is also done in closed-
impression dies with the exception that the force is a continuous squeezing type
applied by the hydraulic presses.
4. Machine forging: Unlike the drop or press forging where the material is drawn
out, in machine forging, the material is only upset to get the desired shape.

2.2.1 Smith forging

The process involves heating the stock in the blacksmith’s hearth and then beating it over
the anvil. To get the desired shape, the operator has to manipulate the component in
between the blows. The types of operations available are fullering, flattening, bending,
upsetting and swaging.

Fig. 2.4 Fullering (smith forging) operation.

In fullering, the material cross section is decreased and length increased. To do this, the
bottom fuller is kept in the anvil hole with the heated stock over the fuller. The top fuller
is then kept above the stock and then with the sledge hammer, the force is applied on the
top fuller. Then the stock is advanced slightly over the fuller and the process repeated, as
shown in Fig. 2.4.

After fullering, the stock is cleaned by means of flattening to remove the marks left for
fullering. To obtain specific shapes such as round, square, hexagon, etc., open general-
purpose dies called swages are used. The force for shaping is applied by manual
hammering or by means of the forging hammers.
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Smith forging involves a lot of skill on the part of the operator, and also is more time
consuming. Smith forging is more beneficial in the manufacture of small lots or in trial
production.

2.2.2 Drop forging

Drop forging utilizes a closed-impression die to obtain the desired shape of the
component. The shaping is done by the repeated hammering given to the material in the
die cavity. The equipment used for delivering the blows are called drop hammers.
The drop-forging die consists of two halves. The lower half of the die is fixed to the anvil
of the machine, while the upper half is fixed to the ram. The heated stock is kept in the
lower die while the ram delivers four to five blows on the metal, so that the metal spreads
and completely fills the die cavity.
The final shape desired in drop forging cannot be obtained directly from the stock in a
single pass. Depending on the shape of the component, and the desired grain-flow
direction, the material should be manipulated in a number of passes. The various passes
used in the drop forging are as follows, and shown in Fig. 2.5.
• Fullering impression: Since drop forging involves only a reduction in cross section
with no upsetting, the very first step is to reduce the stock to the desired size, in
open dies.
• Edging impression: Also called ‘preform’, is required to gather the exact amount
of material required at each cross section of the finished component.
• Bending impression: This is required for those parts, which have a bent shape. The
bent shapes are also required to improve the grain flow after edging.
• Blocking impression: Also called ‘semifinishing’ impression, is the operation to
make to deep pockets, sharp corners, etc., and is characterized by large corner
radii and fillets, but no flash. It acquires the shape very near to the final shape.
• Finishing impression: The final impression where the actual shape required is
obtained by adding a little extra metal to the stock. This extra metal forms the
flash and surrounds the parting plane.
• Trimming: In this stage, the extra flash present around the forging is trimmed to
get the forging in the usable form.

The typical products obtained in drop forging are crank, crank shaft, connecting rod,
wrench, crane hook, etc. However, too complex shapes with internal cavities, deep
pockets, re-entrant shapes, etc. cannot be obtained in drop forging due to the limitation
of the withdrawal of the finished forging from the die.

19
 Fig. 2.5 Various stages in drop forging for the fabrication of a lever.

2.2.3 Press forging

Press-forging dies are similar to drop-forging dies as also the process. In press forging,
the metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging, but by means of
a single continuous squeezing action. This squeezing is obtained by means of hydraulic
presses.
Because of the continuous action of the hydraulic presses, the material gets uniformly
deformed throughout its entire depth. But the press capacity required for deforming is
higher. The presses may have capacities ranging from 5 MN to 50 MN for normal
applications. For special heavy duty applications, higher capacity presses of the order of
150 MN are required. But for this, the press forging die is similar to drop forging die with
the various impressions such as fuller, bender, blocker and finisher impressions properly
arranged.
2.2.4 Machine forging
As it involves the upsetting operation, sometimes it is simply called upset forging.
Upsetting machines called upsetters are generally horizontal acting. The die set consists
of a die and a corresponding punch or a heading tool. The die consists of two parts, one
called the stationary-gripper die which is fixed to the machine frame and the other,
movable-gripper die, which moves along with the die slide of the upsetter. The stock is
held between these two gripper dies by friction.

20 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

The two dies when in closed position, form the necessary die cavity. Then the heading
tool advances against the stock and upsets it to completely fill the die cavity. Having
completed the upsetting, the heading tool moves back to its back position. Then the
movable gripper die releases the stock by sliding backwards.
Because of the beneficial grain flow obtained from upsetting, it is used for making gear
blanks, shafts, axles and similar parts. Some typical examples of upset forgings are axle
trunion socket, axle housing, spindle, ball joint housing, etc.

2.3 Forging Operations

A discussed earlier, forging is the controlled plastic deformation or working of metals
into predetermined shapes called dies by means of pressure or impact blows, or a
combination of both. A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a forging
hammer, while one that applies gradual pressure is called a forging press. There are
several types of forging processes, among them, open-die forging, impression-die forging
and flashless forging are most common.
2.3.1 Open-die forging
The work is compressed between two flat dies, thus allowing the metal to flow without
constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die surfaces. Drawing out, spread forging
and upsetting are the essential open-die forging processes performed on the forging
presses and special forging machines and used in industry.
If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between work and
die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs, and the radial flow of the material
is uniform throughout its height, as pictured in Figure 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 The deformation of a cylindrical work part in an open-die forging operation: (1)
Initial condition of the process, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size.
21
Under these ideal conditions, the force required to continue the compression at any given
height h during the process can be obtained by:
F = Yf A (2.1)

where F = force, N (or lb); A = cross-sectional area of the part, mm2 (in2); and Yf = flow
h
stress corresponding to the strain from  = ln 0 , MPa (lb/in2).
h
However, in an actual upsetting operation, friction opposes the flow of work metal at the
die surfaces. This creates the barreling effect shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7 Actual deformation of a cylindrical work part in open-die forging, showing
pronounced barreling: (1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.

Then, the force required is modified as:

F = K f Yf A (2.2)

0.4 D
where, Kf is the forging shape factor, and defined as K f = 1 + ;
h

μ = coefficient of friction;
D = work part diameter or other dimension for effects of the D/h ratio and friction;
h = work part height, mm (in).
Open-die hot forging is an important industrial process because –
• Shapes generated by open-die operations are simple; examples include shafts,
disks, and rings.
• The work can be manipulated (e.g., rotating in steps) to the desired shape change.
However, skill of human operator is a factor in the success of operations.
• The open-die hot-forging creates a favorable grain flow and metallurgical
structure in the metal.
22 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

However, the open-die forging operations produce rough forms, therefore subsequent
operations are required to refine the parts to final geometry and dimensions.
Open-die forging operations include fullering, edging, and cogging; fullering is a forging
operation performed to reduce the cross section; edging is similar to fullering, except that
the dies have concave surfaces. A cogging operation, also called incremental forging,
consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the length of a workpiece to reduce
cross section and increase length. It is used in the steel industry to produce blooms and
slabs from cast ingots.
2.3.2 Impression die forging
The impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-die forging, is performed with dies
that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the part. The process is illustrated in a
three-step sequence in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact with raw
workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die closure.

The raw workpiece is placed in between the two die halves, a forced is applied on
the dies. Several forming steps are often required to transform the starting blank
into the desired geometry. Separate cavities in the die are needed for each step. As
the die closes to its final position, flash is formed by metal that flows beyond the
die cavity and into the small gap between the die plates. The flash is to be cut away
from the part by trimming operation.
The force formula is the same as for open-die forging, but its interpretation is
slightly different:
F = K f Yf A (2.3)

23
where F = maximum force, N (lb); A = projected area of the part including flash,
mm2 (in2); Yf = flow stress of the material (In hot forging, Yf  yield strength of
metal), MPa (lb/in2); and Kf = forging shape factor (Table 2.1).
Table: 2.1 Typical Kf values for various part shapes in impression-die and flashless forging.

Part Shape Kf Part Shape Kf

Impression-die forging:
Flashless forging:
Simple shapes with flash 6.0
Coining (top and bottom surfaces) 6.0
Complex shapes with flash 8.0
Complex shapes 8.0
Very complex shapes with flash 10.0

The advantages of impression die forging are higher production rates, conservation of
metal, greater strength, and favorable grain orientation of the metal that results from
forging. Impression-die forging is capable to produce forgings with thinner sections,
more complex geometries, drastic reductions in draft requirements on the dies, closer
tolerances, and the virtual elimination of machining allowances. However, impression-
die forging is not capable of close tolerance work, and machining is required to achieve
the accuracies needed.

2.3.3 Flasless forging

In the flashless die forging, also called closed-die forging or true closed-die forging, the
raw workpiece is completely contained within the die cavity during compression, and no
flash is formed. The process sequence is illustrated in Fig. 2.9.

Fig. 2.9 Flashless forging: (1) initial contact with workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3)
final punch and die closure.
24 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Flashless forging is often termed as a precision forging process, as the process lends itself
best to part geometries that are usually simple and symmetrical, and to work materials
such as aluminum and magnesium and their alloys. Therefore, the process imposes
requirements of the work volume must be equal to the space in the die cavity within a
very close tolerance. If the starting blank is too large, excessive pressures may cause
damage to the die or press. If the blank is too small, the cavity will not be filled.
Forces in flashless forging reach values comparable to those in impression die forging.
Estimates of these forces can be computed using the same methods as for impression die
forging (Eq. 2.3 and Table 2.1).
Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in which the dies are impressed into
the top and bottom surfaces of the work part. There is little flow of metal in coining, yet
the pressures required to reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are high. A
common application of coining is the minting of coins.

2.4 Forging Related Operations

In addition to the conventional forging operations, other metal forming operations that
are very close to forging include: coining, heading, swaging, roll forging, orbital forging,
hubbing, isothermal forging, trimming, etc.
• Coining: The term coining refers to the cold squeezing of metal while all of the
surfaces are confined within a set of dies. The process, illustrated in Fig. 2.10, is
used to produce coins, medals, and other products where exact size and fine detail
are required.

Fig. 2.10 Coining operation.

• Heading: Heading is a form of the cold forging operation (also called upset
forging) is a deformation operation in which a cylindrical work part is increased
in diameter and reduced in length. It is used for making enlarged sections on the
ends of rod or wire, such as the heads of nails, bolts, rivets, or other fasteners, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.11.

25
 Fig. 2.11 Typical steps in a shearing and cold-heading operation.

• Swaging and radial forging: Swaging, also known as rotary swaging or radial
forging, uses external hammering to reduce the diameter or produce tapers or
points on round bars or tubes. The dies, located in the center of the apparatus as
shown in Fig. 2.12, consist of two blocks of hardened tool steel.

Fig. 2.12 Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as they hammer the work.

• Roll forging: Roll forging, as illustrated in Fig. 2.13, is a deformation process used
to reduce the cross section of a cylindrical (or rectangular) workpiece by passing
it through a set of opposing rolls that have grooves matching the desired shape of
the final part. The parts produced by roll forging are generally stronger and possess
favorable grain structure.
• Orbital forging: In this process, deformation occurs by means of a cone-shaped
upper die that is simultaneously rolled and pressed into the work part. The work
is supported on a lower die, and the upper die revolves to accomplish deformation
of the work.
26 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Fig. 2.13 Roll forging process to reduce solid rod stock.

• Hubbing: Hubbing is a deformation process in which a hardened steel form is

pressed into a soft steel block. This process is used to make mold cavities for
plastic molding and die casting. The hardened steel form is called hub.
• Isothermal forging: Isothermal forging is a term applied to a hot-forging operation
in which the work part is maintained at or near its starting elevated temperature
during deformation, usually by heating the forging dies to the same elevated
temperature. Isothermal forging is more expensive than conventional forging and
is usually reserved for difficult-to-forge metals, such as titanium and superalloys,
and for complex part shapes.
• Trimming: Trimming is an operation used to remove flash on the work part in
impression-die forging. In most cases, trimming is accomplished by shearing, as
in Fig. 2.14, in which a punch forces the work through a cutting die, the blades for
which have the profile of the desired part.

Fig. 2.14 Trimming operation to remove the

flash after impression-die forging.

27
2.5 Forging Defects
Though the forging process generally gives superior quality products compared to other
manufacturing processes, still there are some defects that are:
• Unfilled sections: Some sections of the die cavity are not completely filled by the
flowing metal. The causes of this defect are improper design of forging die or
using faulty forging techniques.
• Cold shut: This appears as a small crack at the corners of the forging. This is
caused mainly by the improper design of the die wherein the corner and fillet radii
are small as a result of which the metal does not flow properly into the corner and
ends up as a cold shut.
• Scale pits: This is seen as irregular depressions on the surface of the forging. This
is primarily caused because of the improper cleaning of the stock used for forging.
The oxide and scale present on the stock surface gets embedded into the finished
forging surface.
• Die shift: This is caused by the misalignment of the two die halves, making the
two halves of the forging to be of improper shape.
• Flakes: These are basically internal ruptures caused by the improper cooling of
the large forging. Rapid cooling causes the exteriors to cool quickly causing
internal fractures.
• Improper grain flow: This is caused by the improper design of the die, which
makes the flow of metal not following the final intended directions.

2.6 Problems and Solutions

Problem 1: A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold upset forging operation. The
starting piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the operation
to a height of 36 mm. The work material has a flow curve defined by K = 350 MPa and
n = 0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the force as the process
begins, at intermediate heights of 62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.
[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Solution: From the data given,

 D2h  (50)2  75
Workpiece volume, V = = = 147, 262 mm3.
4 4

28 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

At the moment contact is made by the upper die, h = 75 mm and the force F = 0. At the
start of yielding, h is slightly less than 75 mm; assume that strain = 0.002, at which the
flow stress is Y f = K  = 350  ( 0.002 ) = 121.7 MPa
n 0.17

The diameter is still approximately D = 50 mm and area A = (502/4) = 1963.5 mm2. For
these conditions, the adjustment factor Kf is computed as:
0.4 D 0.4  0.1 50
K f = 1+ = 1+ = 1.027
h 75
The forging force is F = 1.027× (121.7)×(1963.5) = 245,410 N
h0 75
At h = 62 mm,  = ln = ln = 0.1904 and Y f = K  n = 350  ( 0.1904 ) = 264.0 MPa
0.17

h 62
Assuming constant volume, and neglecting barreling, A = 147,262/62 = 2375.2 mm2 and
4(2375.2)
D= = 55.0 mm

0.4 D 0.4  0.1 55
K f = 1+ = 1+ = 1.035 ,
h 62
so, F = 1.035×(264)×(2375.2) = 649,303 N
Similarly, at h = 49 mm, F = 955,642 N; and at h = 36 mm, F = 1,467,422 N

Problem 2: A cylindrical part is warm upset forged in an open die. The initial diameter
is 45 mm and the initial height is 40 mm. The height after forging is 25 mm. The
coefficient of friction at the die-work interface is 0.20. The yield strength of the work
material is 285 MPa, and its flow curve is defined by a strength coefficient of 600 MPa
and a strain-hardening exponent of 0.12. Determine the force in the operation (a) just as
the yield point is reached (yield at strain = 0.002), (b) at a height of 35 mm, (c) at a height
of 30 mm, and (d) at a height of 25 mm.
[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Solution: From the above data,

 D2h  (45)2 (40)

(a) Volume of material, V = = = 63,617 mm3
4 4
Given, ε = 0.002, Yf = 600×(0.002)×0.12 = 284.6 MPa, and
h = 40 – 40(0.002) = 39.92 mm; area, A = V/h = 63,617/39.92 = 1,594 mm2
Now, we get, Kf = 1 + 0.4(0.2)(45)/39.92 = 1.09

29
 Force required, F = 1.09×(284.6)×(1594) = 494,400 N
(b) Given, h = 35 mm, ε = ln(40/35) = ln (1.143) = 0.1335
Yf = 600×(0.1335)×0.12 = 471.2 MPa
V = 63,617 mm3 [from part (a)].
At, h = 35, and A = V/h = 63617/35 = 1818 mm
Corresponding, D = 48.1 mm (from A = πD2/4)
Kf = 1 + 0.4(0.2)(48.1)/35 = 1.110
Force required, F = 1.110(471.2)(1818) = 950,700 N
(c) Given h = 30, ε = ln(40/30) = ln(1.333) = 0.2877
Yf = 600(0.2877)0.12 = 516.7 MPa; V = 63,617 mm3 [from part (a)].
At h = 30, A = V/h = 63,617/30 = 2120.6 mm2
Corresponding D = 51.96 mm (from A = πD2/4)
Kf = 1 + 0.4(0.2)(51.96)/30 = 1.138
Force required, F = 1.138(516.7)(2120.6) = 1,247,536 N
(d) Given h = 25, ε = ln(40/25) = ln (1.6) = 0.4700
Yf = 600(0.470)0.12 = 548.0 MPa
V = 63,617 mm3 [from part (a)].
At, h = 25, A = V/h = 63,617/25 = 2545 mm2
Corresponding D = 56.9 mm (from A = πD2/4)
Kf = 1 + 0.4(0.2)(56.9)/25 = 1.182
Force required, F = 1.182(548.0)(2545) = 1,649,000 N

Problem 3: A cylindrical workpart with D = 2.5 in and h = 2.5 in is upset forged in an

open die to a height = 1.5 in. Coefficient of friction at the die-work interface = 0.10. The
work material has a flow curve defined by: K = 40,000 lb/in2 and n = 0.15. Yield strength
= 15,750 lb/in2. Determine the instantaneous force in the operation (a) just as the yield
point is reached (yield at strain = 0.002), (b) at height h = 2.3 in, (c) h = 2.1 in, (d) h =
1.9 in, (e) h = 1.7 in, and (f) h = 1.5 in.
[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Problem 4: A cylindrical workpart has a diameter = 2.5 in and a height = 4.0 in. It is
upset forged to a height = 2.75 in. Coefficient of friction at the die work interface = 0.10.
30 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

The work material has a flow curve with strength coefficient = 25,000 lb/in2 and strain
hardening exponent = 0.22. Determine the plot of force vs. work height.

[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Problem 5: A cold heading operation is performed to produce the head on a steel nail.
The strength coefficient for this steel is 600 MPa, and the strain hardening exponent is
0.22. Coefficient of friction at the die-work interface is 0.14. The wire stock out of which
the nail is made is 5.00 mm in diameter. The head is to have a diameter of 9.5 mm and a
thickness of 1.6 mm. The final length of the nail is 120 mm. (a) What length of stock
must project out of the die in order to provide sufficient volume of material for this
upsetting operation? (b) Compute the maximum force that the punch must apply to form
the head in this open-die operation. [Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Problem 6: A hydraulic forging press is capable of exerting a maximum force =

1,000,000 N. A cylindrical workpart is to be cold upset forged. The starting part has
diameter = 30 mm and height = 30 mm. The flow curve of the metal is defined by K =
400 MPa and n = 0.2. Determine the maximum reduction in height to which the part can
be compressed with this forging press, if the coefficient of friction = 0.1.

[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Problem 7: A connecting rod is designed to be hot forged in an impression die. The

projected area of the part is 6,500 mm2. The design of the die will cause flash to form
during forging, so that the area, including flash, will be 9,000 mm2. The part geometry is
considered to be complex. As heated the work material yields at 75 MPa, and has no
tendency to strain harden. Determine the maximum force required to perform the
operation. [Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 443]

Solution: Since the work material has no tendency to work harden, n = 0.

From Table 2.1, choose Kf = 8.0. Using the equation 2.3, we have:
F = 8.0(75)(9,000) = 5,400,000 N.

Problem 8: A connecting rod is hot forged in an impression die. The projected area of
the part 4,530 mm2. The design of the die causes flash to form during forging, so that the
area, including flash, 6,120 mm2. The part geometry is complex. As heated, the work
metal yields at 70 MPa and has no tendency to strain harden. Determine the maximum
force required to perform the operation.

31
Problem 9: A part is hot forged in an impression die. The projected area of the part,
including flash, = 17.3 in2. After trimming, the part has a projected area of 12.5 in2. Part
geometry is complex. As heated, the work metal yields at 13,000 lb/in2 and no strain
hardening occurs. At room temperature, the metal yields at 30,000 lb/in2. Determine the
maximum force required to perform the forging operation.

Problem 10: A cylindrical part is upset forged in an open die. The starting diameter = 50
mm and height = 40 mm. Height after forging = 30 mm. Coefficient of friction at the die-
work interface = 0.20. Yield strength of the low-carbon steel = 105 MPa, and its flow
curve is defined by a strength coefficient = 500 MPa and a strain hardening exponent
0.25 (Table 3.4). Determine the force in the operation (a) just as the yield point is reached
(yield at strain 0.002), (b) at a height of 35 mm, and (c) at a height of 30 mm.

32 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 3
Bulk Deformation Process
Rolling
At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:
• identify the different types of rolling processes and their applications in various
industries;
• explain the mechanics of rolling and key parameters affecting the final product;
• apply theoretical concepts to practical scenarios, including problem-solving.

3.1 Introduction
Rolling operations reduce the thickness or change the cross section of a material through
compressive forces exerted by rolls. The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously squeeze
the work between them. Thick starting stock can be rolled into blooms, billets, or slabs,
or these shapes can be obtained directly from continuous casting.
Rolling of soft metals by manual methods dates from the fourteenth century. Leonardo
da Vinci designed the first rolling mills in 1480, but cold rolling of lead and tin was
accomplished on manually operated rolling mills by 1600. By around 1700, hot rolling
of iron was being done in Europe. These mills were used to roll iron bars into narrow
strips for making nails and similar products. Modern rolling practice dates from 1783 in
England using grooved rolls.
Most rolling is carried out by hot working, called hot rolling, owing to the large amount
of deformation required. For steel, the desired temperature for rolling is around 1200°C
(2200°F). The heating operation is called soaking, and the furnaces in which it is carried
out are called soaking pits. The disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product cannot
be held to close tolerances, and the surface has a characteristic oxide scale.

3.2 Rolling Process

As stated earlier, rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls. Thick starting stock can
be rolled into blooms, billets, or slabs, or these shapes can be obtained directly from
continuous casting.
33
 • A bloom has a square or rectangular cross section, with a thickness greater than
150 mm × 150 mm (6 in.× 6 in.) or larger, and a width no greater than twice the
thickness.
• A billet is usually smaller than a bloom, and is square or circular cross section
with dimensions 40 mm (1.5 in) on a side or larger.
• A slab is a rectangular solid section, is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a
width 250 mm (10 in) or more and thickness 40 mm (1.5 in) or more. Slabs can
be further rolled to produce plate, sheet, and strip.
• Plates have thickness greater than 6 mm (0.25 inch), while sheet and strip range
from 6 mm to 0.1 mm (0.25 inch to 0.004 inch).

Fig. 3.1 The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

In the rolling process, shown in Fig. 3.1, metal is passed between two rolls that rotate in
opposite directions. The gap between the rolls is kept less than the thickness of the
entering metal. The rolls rotate with a surface velocity that exceeds the speed of the
incoming metal, friction along the contact interface acts to propel the metal forward. The
metal is then squeezed and elongates to compensate for the decrease in thickness or cross-
sectional area.
The amount of deformation that can be achieved in a single pass between a given pair of
rolls depends on the friction conditions along the interface. If too much is demanded, the
rolls cannot advance the material and simply skid over its surface. So, rougher rolls would
be able to achieve greater reduction than smoother rolls.
Rolling is normally a hot working process unless specifically mentioned as cold rolling.
In hot rolling, the starting material is heated to a uniform elevated temperature. If the
temperature is not uniform, the subsequent deformation will not be uniform. Cold rolling
can be used to produce sheet, strip, bar, and rod products with extremely smooth surfaces
and accurate dimensions. This material is well suited for subsequent cold-working
operations where good ductility is required.
34 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

The final rolled products such as plates, flats, sheets, rounds and other sections are
obtained in a number of passes starting from billets or slabs. The roll-pass sequence can
be broadly categorized into three types.
• Breakdown passes: These are used for reducing the cross-sectional area nearer to
what is desired. These would be the first to be present in the sequence.
• Roughing passes: In these passes also, the cross section gets reduced, but along
with it, the shape of the rolled material comes nearer to the final shape.
• Finishing passes: These are the final passes, which give the required shape of the
rolled section. Generally, the finishing pass follows a leader pass.

3.3 Analysis of Rolling

The reduction that could be achieved with a given set of rolls is designated as the ‘angle
of bite’. This depends on the type of rolling and the conditions of the rolls used. The
volume of the metal that enters the rolling stand should be same as that leaving it except
in initial passes, when there might be some loss due to filling of voids and cavities in the
ingots. Since the area of the cross section gets decreased, the metal leaving the rolls would
be at a higher velocity than when it entered.
Initially, when the metal enters the rolls, the surface speed of rolls is higher than that of
the incoming metal, whereas, the metal velocity at the exit is higher than that of the
surface speed of the rolls. Between the entrance and exit, the velocity of the metal is
continuously changing, whereas the roll velocity remains constant.
In flat rolling, shown in Fig. 3.2, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its
thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft. The amount of draft is:
d = to ― tf (3.1)
where, d = draft, mm (in); to = starting thickness, mm (in); and tf = final thickness, mm
(in).
Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting stock thickness, called the
reduction. The reduction (also called reduction ratio) is expressed as:

Change of thickness to − t f d
r= = = (3.2)
Starting thickness to to

where r = reduction. When a series of rolling operations is used, reduction is taken as the
sum of the drafts divided by the original thickness. In addition to thickness reduction,
rolling usually increases work width. This is called spreading.

35
Fig. 3.2 Schematic arrangement of flat rolling. Cross section and friction forces acting on strip
surfaces are shown in the right side.

From the conservation of matters, the volume of metal exiting the rolls equals the volume
entering, therefore:
to wo Lo = t f w f L f (3.3)

where wo and wf are the before and after work widths, mm (in); and Lo and Lf are the
before and after work lengths, mm (in). Similarly, before and after volume rates of
material flow must be the same, so the before and after velocities can be related:
to wovo = t f w f v f (3.4)

where vo and vf are the entering and exiting velocities of the work.
If the roll has radius R, and its surface velocity vr, the amount of slip between the rolls
and the work is measured by the forward slip, is calculated as:

v f − vr
s= (3.5)
vr

where, s = forward slip;

vf = final work velocity, and
vr = roll speed, m/s (ft/sec).

36 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

The true strain by the rolling is:

to
 = ln (3.6)
tf

Then the average flow stress applied to the work material in flat rolling:

K n
Yf = (3.7)
1+ n
The maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in flat rolling is:

dmax =  2 R (3.8)

where dmax = maximum draft, mm (in); μ = coefficient of friction (in cold rolling, μ is
around 0.1; in warm working, a typical value is around 0.2; and in hot rolling, μ is around
0.4); and R = roll radius mm (in).
The force required to maintain separation between the two rolls is computed as:
L
F = w pdL (3.9)
0

where, F = rolling force, N (lb); w = the width of the work being rolled, mm (in); p = roll
pressure, MPa (lb/in2); and L = length of contact between rolls and work, mm (in). An
approximation of the F is obtained by the Equation stated as:

F = Y f wL (3.10)

where, Y f = average flow stress, MPa (lb/in2); and w.L= roll-work contact area, mm2
(in2). Contact length can be approximated by:

L = R ( to − t f ) (3.11)

The torque for each roll can be estimated by

T = 0.5FL (3.12)
The power required to drive each roll is the product of torque and angular velocity.
Angular velocity is 2pN, where N = rotational speed of the roll. Thus, power for each roll
is 2pNT. As a rolling mill consists of two powered rolls, the power is:
P = 2 NFL (3.13)
where, P = power, J/s or W (in-lb/min); N = rotational speed, (rev/min); F = rolling force,
N (lb); and L = contact length, m (in).

37
3.4 Rolling Mill Arrangements
The arrangement of rolls in a rolling mill, also called rolling stand, varies depending on
the application and technical problems in the rolling process. The various possible
configurations are presented in Fig. 3.3 and 3.4.
• The basic rolling mill consists of two opposing rolls and is referred to as a two-
high rolling mill, shown in Fig. 3.3(a). The rolls in these mills have diameters in
the range 0.6 to 1.4 m (2.0–4.5 ft).
• The arrangement shown in Fig. 3.3(b) is a 2-high reversing rolling stand, where
the direction of roll rotation can be reversed. This type of stand is particularly
useful in reducing the handling time of the hot metal.

Fig. 3.3 Basic rolling-stand arrangements: (a) 2-high, (b) 2-high reverse, (c) 3-high, (d)
4-high, and (e) cluster mill,

• In the three-high configuration, Fig. 3.3 (c), there are three rolls in a vertical
column, and the direction of rotation of each roll remains unchanged. To achieve
a series of reductions, the work can be passed through from either side by raising
or lowering the strip after each pass.
• The four-high rolling mill uses two smaller-diameter rolls to contact the work and
two backing rolls behind them, as in Fig. 3.3(d). The smaller rolls are used for
larger reductions and cold rolling where roll separating forces are large. The
smaller rolls would not have enough rigidity to support a large roll-separating
force.

38 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

• The cluster roll configuration that allows smaller working rolls against the work
is shown in Fig. 3.3(e).
• To achieve higher throughput rates in standard products, a tandem rolling mill is
often used. This configuration consists of a series of rolling stands, as represented
in Fig. 3.4(a). Although only three stands are shown in the sketch, a typical tandem
rolling mill may have eight or ten stands.
• Modern tandem rolling mills required a large reduction, a number of free rotating
wheels instead of a single small roll, are fixed to a large backup roll in the
planetary rolling-mill arrangement, is shown in Fig. 3.4(b).

Fig. 3.4 Other rolling mills configurations: (a) tandem rolling mill, (b) Planetary rolling mill.

3.5 Rolling Related Operations

Other bulk deformation processes use rolls to form the work part. The operations include
thread rolling, ring rolling, gear rolling, and roll piercing.
3.5.1 Thread rolling
Thread rolling, also called as thread milling, is a cold-working process used to form
threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies. It is the most important
commercial process for mass producing external threaded components (e.g., bolts and
39
screws). It utilizes two rotating rolling dies that determine the size and form of the thread
to exert dynamic force on the surface of the work piece. The thread rolling arrangement
is shown in Fig. 3.5. The dies are of two types: (i) flat dies, which reciprocate relative to
each other, and (ii) round dies, which rotate relative to each other to accomplish the
rolling action. As the thread form on the rolling die is pressed into the surface of the work
piece the thread form is transformed all the way to the root diameter of the thread.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.5 Thread rolling operation: (1) with flat dies, and (2) with round dies.

3.5.2 Ring rolling

Ring rolling is a special rolling process in
which a thick-walled ring of smaller
diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring
of larger diameter. As the rolls squeeze
and rotate, the wall thickness is reduced
and the diameter of the ring increases. The
ring rolling process is illustrated in Fig.
3.6. Ring rolling is usually performed as a
hot-working process for large rings and as
a cold-working process for smaller rings.
The resulting seamless rings find
application in products such as ball and
roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad
wheels, turbines, airplanes, pipelines, and
Fig. 3.6 Schematic of a ring rolling operation.
pressure vessels and rotating machinery.
40 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

3.5.3 Gear rolling

Gear rolling is a cold working process to produce certain gears. The automotive industry
is an important user of these products. The setup in gear rolling is similar to thread rolling,
except that the deformed features of the cylindrical blank or disk are oriented parallel to
its axis rather than spiraled as in thread rolling. Advantages include higher production
rates, better strength and fatigue resistance, and less material waste compared to gear
machining.
3.5.4 Roll piercing
Roll piercing is a specialized hot working process for making seamless thick-walled
tubes. Here, the billet or round stock is rolled between two rolls, both of them rotating in
the same direction with their axes at an angle of 4.5 to 6.5 deg. These rolls have a central
cylindrical portion with the sides tapering slightly. There are two small side rolls, which
help in guiding the metal. A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the hole
created by the action. The roll piercing process is shown in Fig. 3.7. The tube obtained
in the roll-piercing mill is further processed in a plug mill to obtain the desired size. The
terms rotary tube piercing and Mannesmann process are also used for this tube-making
operation.

Fig. 3.7 Roll piercing: (a) formation of internal stresses; and (b) setup of roll piercing.

3.6 Rolling Defects

The rolling defects are divided into two classes: (a) Surface defects, and (b) Structural
defects.
Surface defects: The surface defects are mainly caused by the improper preparation of
the input material surface such as scales, rust and dirt. Some of the surface defects are:
• Lap: This type of surface defect occurs after multiple passes, and it appears as a
seam caused by folding over hot metal, fins, or sharp corners.
• Mill-shearing: A defect which can be described as a feathering type light-surface
lap.
41
 • Rolled-in scale: Surface oxides that are present on input surface that was
improperly cleaned or formed on hot steel that would be pressed back into the
surface without getting welded.
• Scabs: Elongated patches of loosened metal which have been rolled into the
surface.
• Seams: Open, broken surface running in straight longitudinal lines caused by the
presence of oxides near the surface.
• Silvers: Surface ruptures somewhat similar in appearance to skin laminations, but
usually more prominent.
Structural defects: These are more important and are caused by the rolling process itself
because of the uneven forces acting on the material. These are more difficult to eliminate.
These defects include the following:
• Wavy edges: Wavy edges can be caused because of the elastic deflection of the
rolls due to the rolling force acting on them. These compressive stresses cause the
rolled sheet to be wavy at the edges.
• Zipper cracks: These are also caused due to the bending of rolls under the rolling
pressure similar to wavy edges. However, zipper cracks are seen at the center due
to bending deformation of the rolls under the rolling pressure.
• Edge cracks: The main cause of edge cracking is the nonhomogeneous plastic
deformation of metal across the width.
• Alligatoring: The formation of an open mouth of the alligator due to the
application of very high forces and a considerable amount of friction between the
rolled product and the rolled surface. If conditions become severe, then the rolled
part may split, and the defect is called alligatoring.
• Laminations: This defect appears in the rolled object as sandwiched layers. This
is caused when the ingot used for rolling is not sound and has a piping or
blowholes.

3.7 Problems and Solutions

Problem-1: A 300-mm-wide strip 25 mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two
powered rolls each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm
in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by
K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work
is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation
42 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and horsepower.

[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 435]

Solution: From the data given,

Draft, d = to − t f = 25 − 22 = 3 mm

The maximum possible draft for the given coefficient of friction is

dmax =  2 R = (0.12)2 250 = 3.6 mm

The contact length L and average flow stress Y f are calculated as:

L = R ( to − t f ) = 250 ( 25 − 22 ) = 27.4 mm and

K  n 275(0.128)0.15 to 25
Yf = = = 175.7 as,  = ln = ln = 0.128
1+ n 1 + 0.15 tf 22

Thus, the rolling force (F), Torque (T) and, Power (P) are calculated as under:

Rolling force required, F = Y f wL = 175.7  300  27.4 = 1,444,786 N

Torque required, T = 0.5FL = 0.5(1444786)(27.4  10−3 ) = 19,786 N-m

Power required, P = 2 NFL = 2 (50)(1444786)(27.4  10−3 ) = 12432086 N-m/min

Problem-2: A 42.0-mm-thick plate made of low carbon steel is to be reduced to 34.0

mm in one pass in a rolling operation. As the thickness is reduced, the plate widens by
4%. The yield strength of the steel plate is 174 MPa and the tensile strength is 290 MPa.
The entrance speed of the plate is 15.0 m/min. The roll radius is 325 mm and the
rotational speed is 49.0 rev/min. Determine (a) the minimum required coefficient of
friction that would make this rolling operation possible, (b) exit velocity of the plate, and
(c) forward slip. [Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4e, pp. 438]

Solution: From the above information, we know,

dmax =  2 R  42 − 34 =  2  325   = 8 / 325 = 0.157

Plate widens by 4%, therefore

to wovo = t f w f v f  42  wo  15 = 34  10.4wo  v f  v f = 17.8 m/s

The velocity of the roll, vr =  r 2 N =  (0.325)2 (49.0) = 16.26 m/min

Slip, s = v f − vr = 17.8 − 16.26 = 0.0947

vr 16.26
43
Problem-3: A 2.0-in-thick slab is 10.0 in wide and 12.0 ft long. Thickness is to be
reduced in three steps in a hot rolling operation. Each step will reduce the slab to 75% of
its previous thickness. It is expected that for this metal and reduction, the slab will widen
by 3% in each step. If the entry speed of the slab in the first step is 40 ft/min, and roll
speed is the same for the three steps, determine: (a) length and (b) exit velocity of the
slab after the final reduction. [Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4e, pp. 438]

Solution: From the above information, after three passes,

(a) The final thickness of the part, tf = (0.75)×(0.75)×(0.75)×(2.0) = 0.844 in
The final width of the part, wf = (1.03) × (1.03) × (1.03) × (10.0) = 10.927 in
We know, to wo Lo = t f w f L f  2.0  10.0  (12  12) = 0.844  10.927  L f

The final length of the part, Lf = 312.3 in = 26.025 ft

(b) From the continuity equation, we know, to wovo = t f w f v f , therefore

Step 1: vf = (2.0)(10.0)(40)/(0.75×2.0)(1.03×10.0) = 51.78 ft/min

Step 2: vf = (0.75×2.0)(1.03×10.0)(40)/(0.752×2.0)(1.032×10.0) = 51.78 ft/min
Step 3: vf = (0.752×2.0)(1.032×10.0)(40)/(0.753×2.0)(1.033×10.0) = 51.78 ft/min

Problem-4: A series of cold rolling operations are to be used to reduce the thickness of
a plate from 50 mm down to 25 mm in a reversing two-high mill. Roll diameter = 700
mm and coefficient of friction between rolls and work = 0.15. The specification is that
the draft is to be equal on each pass. Determine (a) minimum number of passes required,
and (b) draft for each pass? Suppose that the percent reductions were specified to be equal
for each pass, rather than the draft. (c) What is the draft for each pass?
[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4e, pp. 438]

Solution: (a) Maximum draft, 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇2 𝑅 = (0.15)2 350 = 7.875 mm

Minimum number of passes =

(t o −tf )
=
50 − 25
= 3.17 Pass → 4 Pass
dmax 7.875
(b) Draft per pass, d = (50 ― 25)/4 = 6.25 mm
(c) This converts into a maximum possible reduction x = 7.875/50 = 0.1575. Let, x =
fraction reduction per pass, and n = number of passes. The number of passes must be an
integer. To reduce from to = 50 mm to tf = 25 mm in n passes, the following relationship
must be satisfied:

44 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

50 (1 − x ) = 25  (1 − x ) = 25 / 50 = 0.5 Now, solving by trial and error method.

n n

Let’s try, n = 4; (1 ― x)4 = 0.5

x = 1― 0.8409 = 0.1591, which exceeds the max possible reduction of 0.1575.
Try, n = 5; (1 - x)5 = 0.5; ⸫ x = 1 ― 0.87055 = 0.12945, which is within the maximum
possible reduction of 0.1575.
(b) Pass 1: d = 50(0.12945) = 6.47 mm, tf = 50 ― 6.47 = 43.53 mm
Pass 2: d = 43.53(0.12945) = 5.63 mm, tf = 43.53 ― 5.63 = 37.89 mm
Pass 3: d = 37.89(0.12945) = 4.91 mm, tf = 37.89 ― 4.91 = 32.98 mm
Pass 4: d = 32.98(0.12945) = 4.27 mm, tf = 32.98 ― 4.27 = 28.71 mm
Pass 5: d = 28.71(0.12945) = 3.71 mm, tf = 28.71 ― 3.71 = 25.00 mm

Problem-5: A continuous hot rolling mill has two stands. Thickness of the starting plate
= 25 mm and width = 300 mm. Final thickness is to be 13 mm. Roll radius at each stand
= 250 mm. Rotational speed at the first stand = 20 rev/min. Equal drafts of 6 mm are to
be taken at each stand. The plate is wide enough relative to its thickness that no increase
in width occurs. Under the assumption that the forward slip is equal at each stand,
determine (a) speed vr at each stand, and (b) forward slip s. (c) Also, determine the exiting
speeds at each rolling stand, if the entering speed at the first stand = 26 m/min.
[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4e, pp. 439]

Solution: Let to = 25 mm, the entering plate thickness at stand 1; then, t1 = exiting plate
thickness at stand 1 and entering thickness at stand 2, t1 = 25 ― 6 = 19 mm; and t2 =
exiting plate thickness at stand 2. t2 = 19 ― 6 = 13 mm.
Again, let vo = entering plate speed at stand 1; v1 = exiting plate speed at stand 1 and
entering speed at stand 2; and v2 = exiting plate speed at stand 2.
Let vr1 = roll speed at stand 1, and, vr1 = πDNr = π(2×250×10-3)(20) = 31.42 m/min
Let vr2 = roll speed at stand 2, then, vr2 = ?
(a) We know, forward slip, s = (vf ― vr)/vr ⸫ svr = vf ― vr or, (1 + s)vr = vf
At stand 1, (1 + s)vr1 = v1 (Eq. 1) and At stand 2, (1 + s)vr2 = v2 (Eq. 2)
By constant volume, towovo = t1w1v1 = t2w2v2
Therefore, tovo = t1v1 = t2v2 [no change in width, wo = w1 = w2]
1.0 vo = 0.75 v1 = 0.50 v2 and, v2 = 1.5v1 (Eq. 3)
Combining (Eqs. 2 and 3), (1 + s)vr2 = v2 = 1.5v1
45
Substituting (Eq. 1), (1 + s)vr2 = 1.5(1 + s)vr1 , thus vr2 = 1.5vr1
vr2= 1.5(31.42) = 47.1 m/min
(b) 25vo = 19v1 ⸫ v1 = 25(26)/19 = 34.2 m/min
(Eq. 1): (1 + s)vr1 = v1 ⸫ (1 + s)(31.4) = 34.2 or, s = 0.089
(c) As, v1 = 34.2 m/min, v2 = 1.5v1 = 1.5(34.2) = 51.3 m/min

Problem-6: A plate that is 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is to be reduced in a single

pass in a two-high rolling mill to a thickness of 20 mm. The roll has a radius = 500 mm,
and its speed = 30 m/min. The work material has a strength coefficient = 240 MPa and a
strain hardening exponent = 0.2. Determine (a) roll force, (b) roll torque, and (c) power
required to accomplish this operation.
[Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4e, pp. 439]

Solution: From the above information, we have, Draft d = 25 ― 20 = 5 mm,

Contact length, L = R(to − t f ) = Rd = 500  5 = 50 mm

to 25
True strain,  = ln = ln = ln(1.25) = 0.223 and
tf 20

K  n 240  ( 0.223)
0.2

Average flow stress, Y f = = = 148.1 MPa

1+ n 1 + 0.20
(a) Rolling force, F = 148.1×250×50 = 1,851,829 N
(b) Torque, T = 0.5×1851829×(50 × 10-3) = 46,296 N-m
(c) N = (30 m/min)/( 2π× 0.500) = 9.55 rev/min = 0.159 rev/s
Power, P = 2π(0.159)(1,851,829)(50×10-3) = 92,591 N-m/s = 92,591 W

Problem-7: A 4.50-in-thick slab that is 9 in wide and 24 in long is to be reduced in a

single pass in a two-high rolling mill to a thickness of 3.87 in. The roll rotates at a speed
of 5.50 rev/min and has a radius of 17.0 in. The work material has a strength coefficient
= 30,000 lb/in2 and a strain hardening exponent = 0.15. Determine (a) roll force, (b) roll
torque, and (c) power required to accomplish this operation. [Groover, 4e, pp. 439]

Solution: Solution: From the above information, we find

Draft d = 4.50 – 3.87 = 0.63 in,

Contact length L = R(to − t f ) = Rd = 17  0.63 = 3.27 in

46 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

True strain ε = ln(4.5/3.87) = ln (1.16) = 0.1508

K  n 30000  ( 0.1508 )
0.15

Average flow stress, Y f = = = 19,642 lb/in2

1+ n 1 + 0.15
(a) Rolling force, F = Y f wL = 16,414×9.0×3.27 = 483,000 lb

(b) Torque, T = 0.5FL = 0.5×(483000)×(3.27) = 789,700 in-lb.

(c) N = 5.50 rev/min; Power, P = 2π(5.50)(483000)(3.27) = 54,580,500 in-lb/min
HP = (54,580,500 in-lb/min)/(396,000) = 138 hp
Problem: An annealed copper strip 9 in. (228 mm) wide and 1.00 in. (25 mm) thick is
rolled to a thickness of 0.80 in. (20 mm) in one pass. The roll radius is 12 in. (300 mm),
and the rolls rotate at 100 rpm. Calculate the roll force and the power required in this
operation. [Kalpakjain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6e, pp.320]

In the Problem 1, calculate the roll force and the power for the case in which the
workpiece material is 1100-O aluminum and the roll radius, R, is 8 in.
[Kalpakjain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6e, pp.334]

Problem: Estimate the roll force, F, and the torque for an AISI 1020 carbon-steel strip
that is 200 mm wide, 10 mm thick, and rolled to a thickness of 7 mm. The roll radius is
200 mm, and it rotates at 200 rpm. [Kalpakjain, 6e, pp.334]

Problem: A single-pass rolling operation reduces a 20 mm thick plate to 18 mm. The

starting plate is 200 mm wide. Roll radius = 250 mm and rotational speed = 12 rev/min.
The work material has a strength coefficient = 600 MPa and a strength coefficient = 0.22.
Determine (a) roll force, (b) roll torque, and (c) power required for this operation.
Problem: A hot rolling mill has rolls of diameter = 24 in. It can exert a maximum force
= 400,000 lb. The mill has a maximum horsepower = 100 hp. It is desired to reduce a 1.5
in thick plate by the maximum possible draft in one pass. The starting plate is 10 in wide.
In the heated condition, the work material has a strength coefficient = 20,000 lb/in2 and
a strain hardening exponent = zero. Determine (a) maximum possible draft, (b) associated
true strain, and (c) maximum speed of the rolls for the operation.

47
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 4
Bulk Deformation Process
Extrusion

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• understand the common bulk metal deformation processes;

• learn about different types of forging, their use and practical
applications;
• understand different allowances used in forging and learn forging
problems.

4.1 Introduction

Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow

through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. Although
extrusion may be performed either hot or cold, hot extrusion is commonly
employed for many metals to reduce the forces required, eliminate cold-working
effects, and reduce directional properties. The metal is normally compressed by a
ram and may be pushed forward or backward. The product may be solid or hollow.

Extrusion was invented around 1800 in England. The first extrusion machine was
consisted of the first hydraulic press for extruding lead pipes. After the two
centuries, the modern extrusion offers several advantages, these are: (1) a variety
of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion; (2) grain structure and
strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm extrusion; (3) fairly close
tolerances are possible, especially in cold extrusion; and (4) in some extrusion
operations, little or no wasted material is created. However, a limitation is that the
cross section of the extruded part must be uniform throughout its length.
55
 4.2 Extrusion Process

In the extrusion process, metal is compressed and forced to flow through a suitably
shaped die to form a product of constant cross section. The process can be likened
to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube. A typical extrusion process is
presented in Fig. 4.1.

Fig 4.1 Schematic illustration of the extrusion process.

The equipment consists of a cylinder or container into which the heated metal billet
is loaded. On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary opening is
fixed. From the other end, a plunger or ram compresses the metal billet against the
container walls and the die plate, thus forcing it to flow through the die opening,
acquiring the shape of the opening. The extruded metal is then carried by the metal
handling system as it comes out of the die. A dummy block which is a steel disc of
about 40 mm thick with a diameter slightly less than the container is kept between
the hot billet and the ram to protect it from the heat and pressure.

The extrusion ratio is defined as the ratio of cross-sectional area of the billet to that
of the extruded section. The typical values of the extrusion ratio are 20 to 50. Hot
extrusion is commonly employed for many metals in the range of 500 to 1200°C
depending on the work material extruded, and the pressures applied may range
from 35 to 1000 MPa. The extrusion pressure for a given material depends on the
extrusion temperature, the reduction in area and the extrusion speed. The extrusion
speed depends on the work material. A too high extrusion speed would cause
excessive heat generation in the extruded metal causing lateral cracks.
56 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

4.3 Extrusion Types

Extrusions can be produced by various techniques and equipment configurations.

One important distinction is based on the working temperature: cold, warm, or hot
extrusion. Another classification is by the flow of metal: direct extrusion and
indirect extrusion. Finally, extrusion is performed as either a continuous process
or a discrete process.

4.3.1 Hot versus cold extrusion

Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet to a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature. The advantages of hot extrusion include:

• It reduces the strength and increases ductility of the metal,

• It permits more extreme size reductions and more complex shapes to be
achieved in the process.
• Additional advantages include reduction of ram force, increased ram speed,
and reduction of grain flow characteristics in the final product.

However, cooling of the billet and lubrication is critical in hot extrusion process.
Metals that are typically extruded hot include aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc,
tin, and their alloys. Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer, more
ductile grades are sometimes cold extruded.

Cold extrusion, also called cold forming, cold forging, and extrusion pressing, is
normally done at room temperature. This extrusion is generally used to produce
discrete parts, often in finished (or semifinished) form. Cold extrusion is done
quickly, at ram speeds of 0.25– 1.5 m/sec (50–300 ft/min), generating heat that
raises the temperature several hundred degrees, and taking less force than if done
slowly. Some parts are formed in one pressing in a single die; others in two or more
stages in a series of dies and sometimes in conjunction with cold heading.

Some important advantages of cold extrusion include:

• Increased strength due to strain hardening,

• Close tolerances, improved surface finish,
• Absence of oxide layers, and high production rates.
• At room temperature, eliminates the need for heating the starting billet.
57
 Adequate lubrication is mandatory for flow at the high pressures of cold extrusion.
Cold extrusion work hardens metals. The main application cold extrusion is the
manufacture of collapsible tubes from soft aluminum, lead, tin, and zinc. Copper
tubes are forward extruded by a similar operation. Low carbon steels and stainless
steel are sometimes extruded cold.

4.3.2 Direct versus indirect extrusion

Direct extrusion, also called forward extrusion, is illustrated in Fig. 4.2(a). The
movement of the punch and the flow of the material are in the same direction.
During the extrusion process, the pressure of the punch forces the material to flow
in the direction of the movement of the punch, in the process of which the
workpiece being formed takes on the shape of the inside of the die. As the punch
(sometimes a ram) approaches the die, a small portion of the billet remains that
cannot be forced through the die opening. This extra portion, called the butt, is
separated from the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.2 (a) Direct extrusion, and (b) indirect extrusion.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

In indirect extrusion, also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion, Fig.
4.2(b), the flow of the material is in the opposite direction to the movement of the
punch. The material is made to flow by the pressure of the punch above the yield
point. As a lateral escape is not possible the material flows upwards through the
annular gap formed between the die and the punch, in the opposite direction to the
movement of the punch. Indirect extrusion can produce hollow (tubular) cross
sections. Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of the
hollow ram and the difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it exits the die.

4.3.3 Continuous versus discrete extrusion

A true continuous process operates in steady state mode for an indefinite period of
time. Some extrusion operations approach this ideal by producing very long
sections in one cycle, but these operations are ultimately limited by the size of the
starting billet that can be loaded into the extrusion container. These processes are
more accurately described as semi-continuous operations. In nearly all cases, the
long section is cut into smaller lengths in a subsequent sawing or shearing
operation.

In a discrete extrusion operation, a single part is produced in each extrusion cycle.

Impact extrusion is an example of the discrete processing case.

4.4 Analysis of Extrusion

Extrusion is a bulk deformation process in which the material is made to flow using
high pressure, as illustrated in Fig. 4.3. The diagram assumes that both billet and
extrudate are round in cross section. One important parameter is the extrusion ratio,
also called the reduction ratio. The ratio is defined:

Ao
rx = (4.1)
Af

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao and Af = cross-sectional area of the starting billet and
the extruded section, respectively, mm2 (in2). The ratio applies for both direct and
indirect extrusion. The value of true strain in extrusion, given that ideal
deformation occurs with no friction and no redundant work:
59
 Fig. 4.3 Pressure and other variables in direct extrusion.

Ao
 = ln rx = ln (4.2)
Af

Under the assumption of ideal deformation, the pressure applied by the ram to
compress the billet through the die opening can be computed as:
Ao
p = Y f ln rx = Y f ln (4.3)
Af

K n
where, Y f = average flow stress during deformation, MPa. In fact, extrusion
1+ n
is not a frictionless process, then considering the friction, Johnson proposed the
extrusion strain has a value:
 x = a + b ln rx (4.4)

where  x = extrusion strain; and a and b are empirical constants for a given die
angle. Typical values of these constants are: a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5. Values of
a and b tend to increase with increasing die angle.
The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be estimated as:
p = Yf  x (4.5a)

But, in the direct extrusion, considering the effect of friction, the ram pressure:

 2L 
p = Yf   x +  (4.5b)
 Do 

where, Do = diameter of billet, mm; L = length of billet, mm.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

The term 2L/Do accounts for the additional pressure due to friction at the container-
billet interface.

Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion (Eq. 4.5a and 4.5b) is: multiplied by Ao:

F = p. Ao (4.6)

where F = ram force in extrusion, N (lb). The power required for the extrusion is:

P = F .v (4.7)

where P = power, J/s (in-lb/min); and v = ram velocity, m/s (in/min).

4.5 Extrusion Related Operations

Other extrusion operations are unique. Various names are given to operations that
are special cases of the direct and indirect methods; two special forms of extrusion
and related processes include: (i) impact extrusion, and (ii) hydrostatic extrusion.

4.5.1 Impact extrusion

Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, and the process often is included
in the cold-extrusion category. It is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes
than conventional extrusion. As the name suggests, the punch impacts the work
part rather than simply applying pressure to it. Impacting can be carried out as
forward extrusion, backward extrusion, or combinations of these, as illustrated in
Fig. 4.4.

• The forward impacting is also referred to as the Hooker Process, in its

working it closely resembles the conventional extruding. The punch pushes
the metal through the orifice of the die. This causes the metal to flow in the
direction of punch. There is no escaping of the metal backwards as the punch
fits to the wall of the die very closely. Products include straight, round, non-
round, and ribbed rods, thin walled tubing with one or both ends open, and
with tapered or parallel side walls are usually fabricated by this process.

• In the reverse impacting, the cold metal billet inside the die cavity is struck
by a punch or ram. The metal is forced to flow upward around the punch
through an opening between the die and the punch. The opening between

61
 Fig. 4.4 Several examples of impact extrusion: (a) forward extrusion, (b) backward extrusion,
and (c) combination of forward and backward.

the die and the punch ascertains the wall thickness of the shell. The base
thickness relies on the adjustment of the bottom position of the punch ram.
Products include a number of configurations like internal or external rib,
multi-shell walls, square and circular, oval, rectangular and other cross
sections are made by this process.

• The combination impacting process punches the combination of forward

and reverse metal flows. This method is best suited for the formation of
complex-shaped arts. Here the metal is allowed to flow upward into the
punch, until the cavity is filled. This is done by incorporating a lower punch
and a cavity in the upper punch. Punch movements causes forward extrusion
of the remaining metal and results in the formation of a web.

The impact extrusion process is best suited for soft materials such as lead,
aluminium or tin. It is essentially a single-stroke process, but can be repeated at
high speeds to obtain precise parts matching quality specifications. Advantages of
impact extrusion include: (i) it reduces the material cost, as the impacting process
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

typically uses 100% of the metal slug so nothing is wasted, (ii) low tooling costs,
(iii) long tool life, (iv) high production output, (v) increased physical properties,
(vi) high degree of formability, and (vii) highly uniform grain alignment. However,
the maximum diameter of the parts is limited to 150 mm (6 in.), and the symmetry
of the part and the concentricity of the punch and the blank are really important.

4.5.2 Hydrostatic extrusion

In hydrostatic extrusion, as illustrated in Fig. 4.5, the pressure required in the

chamber is supplied via a piston through an incompressible fluid medium
surrounding the billet. Pressures are typically on the order of 1400 MPa (200 ksi).
The high pressure in the chamber transmits some of the fluid to the die surfaces,
where it significantly reduces friction. Hydrostatic extrusion usually is carried out
at room temperature, typically using vegetable oils as the fluid, particularly castor
oil with 10% alcohol, because it is a good lubricant and its viscosity is not
influenced significantly by pressure.

Fig. 4.5 Hydrostatic extrusion.

Brittle materials can be extruded successfully by this method, because the

hydrostatic pressure increases the ductility of the material. Long wires also have
been extruded from an aluminum billet at room temperature and at an extrusion
ratio of 14,000. However, hydrostatic extrusion has had limited industrial
applications, because of complex nature of the tooling, the design of specialized
equipment, and the long cycle times.

63
 4.6 Extrusion Defects

Depending on workpiece material condition and process variables, extruded

products can develop several types of defects that can affect significantly their
strength and product quality. There are three principal extrusion defects: surface
cracking, piping, and centerburst or internal cracking.

• Internal cracking: The center of the extruded product can develop cracks,
called center cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking
(Fig. 4.6(a)). This defect is an internal crack that develops as a result of
tensile stresses along the centerline of the work part during extrusion. If
stresses are great enough, bursting occurs. Conditions that promote
centerburst are high die angles, low extrusion ratios, and impurities in the
work metal.
• Piping: Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion. The type of
metal-flow pattern in extrusion shown in Fig. 4.6(b) tends to draw surface
oxides and impurities toward the center of the billet—much like a funnel.
This defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing. The use of a
dummy block helps to avoid piping.
• Surface cracking: If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too high,
surface temperatures can rise significantly, which may cause surface
cracking and tearing. These cracks are intergranular (i.e., along the grain
boundaries) and usually are caused by hot shortness.
Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die land.
Because of the similarity in appearance to the surface of a bamboo stem, it
is known as a bamboo defect, illustrated in Fig. 4.6(c).

Fig. 4.6 Common extrusion defects: (a) centerburst, (b) piping, and (c) surface cracking.
64 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

4.7 Problems and Solutions

Problem-1: A billet 75 mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be extruded in a

direct extrusion operation with extrusion ratio rx = 4.0. The extrudate has a round
cross section. The die angle (half-angle) = 90°. The work metal has a strength
coefficient = 415 MPa, and strain hardening exponent = 0.18. Use the Johnson
formula with a = 0.8 and b = 1.5 to estimate extrusion strain. Determine the
pressure applied to the end of the billet as the ram moves forward. [Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5e, pp. 462]

Solution: From the data given, the ideal true strain is:

A0
 x = ln = ln re = ln(4.0) = 1.3863
Af

Applying Johnson’s formula, the extrusion strain is:

 x = a + b ln rx = 0.80 + 1.5  1.3863 = 2.8795

and, average flow stress is:

K  n 415  (1.3863)
0.18

Yf = = = 373 MPa
1+ n 1 + 0.18

The ram pressure will be calculated at billet lengths of L = 75 mm (starting value),

L = 50 mm, L = 25 mm, and L = 0. For the die angle of 90°, applied pressure is:

 2L   2  75 
For L = 75 mm, p = Y f   x +  = 373  2.8795 +  = 3312 MPa
 D0   25 

 2L   2  50 
For L = 50 mm, p = Y f   x +  = 373  2.8795 +  = 2566 MPa
 D0   25 

 2L   2  25 
For L = 25 mm, p = Y f   x +  = 373  2.8795 +  = 1820 MPa
 D0   25 

 2L   20 
and, for L = 0, p = Y f   x +  = 373  2.8795 +  = 1074 MPa
 D0   25 

65
 Problem-2: A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 50 mm in diameter is
reduced by indirect (backward) extrusion to a 20 mm diameter. The die angle is
90°. The Johnson equation has a = 0.8 and b = 1.4, and the flow curve for the work
metal has a strength coefficient of 800 MPa and strain hardening exponent of 0.13.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c)
extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure, and (e) ram force.

Solution: From the above information,

A0 D02 502
(a) extrusion ratio, rx = = = = 6.25
Af D 2f 202

A0
(b) true strain,  = ln = ln re = ln(6.25) = 1.833
Af

(c) extrusion strain,  x = a + b ln rx = 0.80 + 1.4  1.833 = 3.366

K  n 800  (1.833)
0.13

(d) average flow stress, Y f = = = 766 MPa

1+ n 1 + 0.13

and the ram pressure for indirect extrusion, p = Y f  x = 766  3.366 = 2578 MPa

 D02   502
(e) ram force, F = p. A0 = p. = 2578  = 50,61,903 N
4 4

Problem-3: A 2.0-in-long billet with diameter = 1.25 in is direct extruded to a

diameter of 0.50 in. The extrusion die angle = 90°. For the work metal, K = 45,000
lb/in2, and n = 0.20. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.5.
Determine (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c)
extrusion strain, and (d) ram pressure at L = 2.0, 1.5, 1.0, 0.5 and zero in. Use of a
spreadsheet calculator is recommended for part (d).

Solution: From the above information,

A0 D02 1.252
(a) extrusion ratio, rx = = = = 6.25
Af D 2f 0.52

(b) true strain (homogeneous deformation),  = ln rx = ln(6.25) = 1.8326

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

(c) extrusion strain,  x = a + brx = 0.8 + 1.5  1.8326 = 3.549

K  xn 45000  (1.8326 )
0.2

and (d) average flow stress, Y f = = = 42,330 lb/in2

1+ n 1 + 0.2

 (1.25)
2
 D02
and, cross-sectional area, A0 = = = 1.227 in2
4 4

 2L   2  2.0 
ram pressure at L = 2.0, p = Y f   x +  = 42,330  3.549 +  = 285,667 lb/in
2

 D0   1.25 
and, ram force, F = p.A0 = 285,667×1.227 = 350,579 lb

Similarly, at L = 1.5, p = 251,813 lb/in2; and Force, F = 309,022 lb

at L = 1.0, p = 217,950 lb/in2; and Force, F = 267,465 lb

at L = 0.5 p = 184,086 lb/in2; and Force, F = 225,908 lb

and at L = 0, p = 150,229 lb/in2; and Force, F = 184,351 lb

However, last values L = 0 is not possible because of the increase in pressure and
force due to the butt remaining in the extruder container at the end of the operation.

Problem-4: An indirect extrusion process starts with an aluminum billet with

diameter = 2.0 in and length = 3.0 in. Final cross section after extrusion is a square
with 1.0 in on a side. The die angle = 90°. The operation is performed cold and the
strength coefficient of the metal K = 26,000 lb/in2 and strain hardening exponent
n = 0.20. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.2. (a) Compute
the extrusion ratio, true strain, and extrusion strain. (b) What is the shape factor of
the product? (c) If the butt left in the container at the end of the stroke is 0.5 in
thick, what is the length of the extruded section? (d) Determine the ram pressure
in the process.

Solution: From the above information, we get

 D02  22
(a) rx = Ao/Af A0 = = = 3.142 in2 and, Af = 1.0 × 1.0 = 1.0 in2
4 4

67
 A0 3.142
⸫ rx = = = 3.142 True strain,  = ln rx = ln(3.142) = 1.145
Af 1

Extrusion strain, εx = 0.8 + 1.3(1.145) = 2.174

(b) To determine the die shape factor, we need to determine the perimeter of a
circle whose area is equal to that of the extruded cross section, A = 1.0 in2. The
radius of the circle is R = (1.0/π)0.5 = 0.5642 in, Cc = 2π(0.5642) = 3.545 in

The perimeter of the extruded cross section Cx = 4(1.0) = 4.0 in

Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(4.0/3.545)2.25 = 1.006

(c) Given that the butt thickness = 0.5 in

Original volume, V = (3.0)(π × 22/4) = 9.426 in3

The final volume consists of two sections: (1) butt, and (2) extrudate. The butt
volume V1 = (0.5)(π22/4) = 1.571 in3. The extrudate has a cross-sectional area Af =
1.0 in2. Its volume V2 = LAf = 9.426 ―1.571 = 7.855 in3.

Thus, length L = 7.855/1.0 = 7.855 in

(d) average stress, Y f = 26,000(1.145)0.2/1.2 = 22,261 lb/in3

Pressure, p = 1.006(22,261)(2.174) = 48,698 lb/in2

3.8 Lecture Summary

• Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section
of a long strip by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls. In
addition to flat rolling, shape rolling is used to make products with various
cross sections.
• Products made by rolling include:
(a) plate, sheet, foil, rod, seamless pipe, and tubing;
(b) shape-rolled products, such as I-beams and structural shapes; and
(c) bars of various cross section.
• Rolling may be carried out at room temperature (cold rolling) or at elevated
temperatures (hot rolling). The process involves several material and

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

process variables, including roll diameter (relative to material thickness),

reduction per pass, speed, lubrication, and temperature.
• Rolling mills have a variety of roll configurations, such as two-high, three-
high, four-high, cluster, and tandem. Front and/or back tension may be
applied to the material to reduce roll forces.
• Other bulk deformation processes use rolls to form the work part. The
operations include thread rolling, ring rolling, gear rolling, and roll piercing.
• The rolling defects are divided into two classes: (a) Surface defects, and (b)
Structural defects. Surface defects include: lap, mill-shearing, rolled-in
scale, scabs, seams and silvers.
• Structural defects are more important and are more difficult to eliminate.
These defects include: wavy edges, zipper cracks, edge cracks, alligatoring,
and laminations.

3.9 Questions

1. A 3.0-in-long cylindrical billet whose diameter =1.5 in is reduced by indirect

extrusion to a diameter = 0.375 in. Die angle = 90°. In the Johnson equation,
a = 0.8 and b = 1.5. In the flow curve for the work metal, K = 75,000 lb/in2
and n = 0.25. Determine:
i. extrusion ratio,
ii. true strain (homogeneous deformation),
iii. extrusion strain,
iv. ram pressure,
v. ram force, and
vi. power if the ram speed = 20 in/min.
[Kalpakjain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6e, pp.320]
2. A billet that is 75 mm long with diameter = 35 mm is direct extruded to a
diameter of 20 mm. The extrusion die has a die angle = 75°. For the work
metal, K = 600 MPa and n = 0.25. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation,
a = 0.8 and b = 1.4. Determine:
i. extrusion ratio,
ii. true strain (homogeneous deformation),
iii. extrusion strain, and
iv. ram pressure and force at L = 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10 mm.
69
 [Kalpakjain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6e, pp.334]
3. A cylindrical billet is 150 mm long and 75 mm in diameter. It is reduced by
indirect extrusion to a 30 mm diameter. Die angle = 900. In the Johnson
equation, a = 0.8 and b = 1.4. In the flow curve for the work metal, strength
coefficient = 800 MPa and strain hardening exponent = 0.15. Determine:
i. extrusion ratio,
ii. true strain (homogeneous deformation),
iii. extrusion strain,
iv. ram pressure, and
v. ram force.
[Kalpakjain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 6e, pp.334]

4. A direct extrusion operation is performed on a cylindrical billet with initial

diameter = 2.0 in and length = 4.0 in. Die angle = 600, and die orifice
diameter is 0.50 in. In the Johnson extrusion strain equation, a = 0.8 and b
= 1.5. The operation is carried out hot, and the hot metal yields at 13,000
lb/in2 and does not strain harden.
i. What is the extrusion ratio?
ii. Determine the ram position at the point when the metal has been
compressed into the cone of the die and starts to extrude through the
die opening.
iii. What is the ram pressure corresponding to this position?
iv. Also determine the length of the final part if the ram stops its forward
movement at the start of the die cone.

70 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 5
Sheet Metal Working

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• understand the common bulk metal deformation processes;

• learn about different types of forging, their use and practical
applications;
• understand different allowances used in forging and learn forging
problems.

5.1 Introduction

As discussed in Lecture 1, sheet metal working includes cutting and forming

operations performed on relatively thin sheets of metal. Typical sheet-metal
thicknesses of sheet metal are between 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and 6 mm (1/4 in). When
thickness exceeds about 6 mm, the stock is usually referred to as plate rather than
sheet. The most commonly used sheet metal is low carbon steel (0.06%–0.15% C).

In sheet metal working, a sheet blank that has a simple shape is plastically formed
between tools (or dies) to obtain a part with relatively complex geometry with
desired tolerances and properties. The characteristics of sheet-metal-working
processes are:

• The workpiece is a sheet or a part fabricated from a sheet.

• The deformation usually causes significant changes in the shape, but not
necessarily the cross-sectional area, of the sheet.

71
 • In some cases, the magnitudes of the plastic and the elastic (recoverable)
deformations are comparable; therefore, elastic recovery or springback may
be significant.

Sheet-metal parts are generally characterized by high strength, good dimensional

accuracy, good surface finish, and relatively low cost. Therefore, the commercial
importance of sheet metalworking is significant. A large variety of consumer and
industrial products that include sheet or plate metal parts: automobile and truck
bodies, airplanes, railway cars, locomotives, farm and construction equipment,
appliances, office furniture, and more are fabricated from the sheet metal.

These processes usually produce little scrap and generate the final part geometry
in a very short time, usually in one stroke or a few strokes of a press. As a result,
sheet forming offers potential savings in energy and material, especially in medium
and large production quantities, where tool costs can be easily amortized.

5.2 Categories of Sheet Metal Forming Processes

All sheet-metal forming processes can be divided into two groups:

1. Cutting processes - shearing, blanking, punching, notching, piercing, etc,

and
2. Plastic deformation processes - bending, stretch forming, deep drawing, and
various other forming processes.

The first group of processes involves cutting material by subjecting it to shear

stresses usually between punch and die, or between the blades of a shear. The
punch and die may be any shape, and the cutting contour may be open or closed.
Shearing, blanking, punching, notching, piercing, parting, lancing, shaving, are
included in this group.

The second group of processes involves partial or complete plastic deformation of

the work material. Bending, twisting, curling, deep drawing, spinning, stretch
forming, necking, bulging, flanging are the representatives of this group.

However, various operations are carried out by press tools, and on the basis of the
type of stresses introduced into the component, sheet metal forming operations are
categorized as shown in Table 1.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Table 1 Classification of sheet metal workings on the basis of stress used

Stresses Induced operations

Shearing Shearing, blanking, piercing, trimming, shaving, notching,
nibbling.
Tension Stretch forming.
Compression Coining, sizing, ironing, hobbing
Tension and Drawing, spinning, bending, forming, embossing
compression

5.3 Shearing Operation

The shearing process involves the cutting of flat material forms, such as sheets and
plates. The cutting may be done by different types of blades or cutters in special
machines driven by mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic power. Generally, the
operations consist of holding the stock rigidly, while it is severed by the force of
an upper blade as it moves down past the stationary lower blade.

The shearing action is depicted in the four stop-action sketches of Fig. 5.1. First,
the upper cutting edge (the punch) comes in contacts the work placed on a
stationary lower cutting edge (the die). As the punch begins to move downward,
the work is stressed in shear to the point of fracture while going through three
phases:

Fig. 5.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges: (1) just before the punch contacts
work; (2) punch begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation; (3) punch compresses
and penetrates into work causing a smooth cut surface; and (4) fracture is initiated at the
opposing cutting edges that separate the sheet.

73
 • Deformation: As the cutting edges begin to close on the material,
deformation occurs on both sides of the material next to the cut edge.
• Penetration: The cutting edges cut or penetrate the material, causing fracture
lines.
• Fracture: The point where the upper and lower fracture lines meet. At this
point the work is done, but in punching, the punch must continue to move
through the material to clear the slug.

The sheared edges of the sheet have characteristic features as in Fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2 Characteristic sheared edges of the work.

Rollover: At the top of the cut surface is a region called the rollover. This
corresponds to the depression made by the punch in the work prior to cutting. It is
where initial plastic deformation occurred in the work.

Burnish: Just below the rollover is a relatively smooth region called the burnish.
This results from penetration of the punch into the work before fracture began.

Fractured zone: After the burnish, a relatively rough surface of the cut edge where
continued downward movement of the punch caused fracture of the metal, is called
the fracture zone.

Finally, at the bottom of the edge is a burr, a sharp corner on the edge caused by
elongation of the metal during final separation of the two pieces.

The amount of each of these four characteristics depends on:

• Material thickness;
• Material type and hardness;
• The speed and force of punching;
• Amount of clearance between cutting edges;
• Condition of cutting edges (the shape of the punch and die);
• Lubrication;
74 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

• Firmness of support of material on both sides of the cut; and

• Diameter of hole or blank in relation to material thickness.

5.3.1 Effect of clearance

The clearance c in a shearing operation is the distance between the punch and die,
as shown in Fig. 5.3. Typical clearances in conventional press working range
between 4% and 8% of the sheet-metal thickness t.

Fig. 5.3 Schematic illustration of shearing with a punch and die.

As the clearance increases, the zone of deformation (Fig. 5.3 right side) becomes
larger and the sheared edge becomes rougher. The sheet tends to be pulled into the
clearance region, and the perimeter or edges of the sheared zone become rougher.
The effect of improper clearances is illustrated in Fig. 5.4.

Fig. 5.4 Schematic view of the effect of clearance on shearing load and edge characteristics.
75
 • If the clearance is too small, then the fracture lines tend to pass each other,
causing a double burnishing and larger cutting forces.
• If the clearance is too large, the metal becomes pinched between the cutting
edges and an excessive burr results.

In special operations requiring very straight edges, such as shaving and fine
blanking, clearance is only about 1% of stock thickness.

The correct clearance depends on sheet-metal type and thickness. The

recommended clearance can be calculated by the following formula:

c = Act (5.1)

where c = clearance, mm (in); Ac = clearance allowance; and t = stock thickness,

mm (in). The clearance allowance is determined according to type of metal. The
clearance for the three groups of metals are given in Table 5.1. For convenience,
clearance can be approximated per side c, as

c = 0.0032  t   mm (5.2)

Where,  = material shear stress, MPa

Table 5.1 Clearance allowance value for three sheet-metal groups.

Metal Group Ac

1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all tempers. 0.045

2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, all tempers; soft cold- 0.060
rolled steel, soft stainless steel.

Cold-rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half-hard and full-hard. 0.075

5.3.2 Determination of die size

In the shearing operation, it is obvious that the die opening must always be larger
than the punch size. Whether to add the clearance value to the die size or subtract
it from the punch size depends on whether the part being cut out is a blank or a
slug, as illustrated in Fig. 5.5 for a circular part. Thus, punch and die sizes for a
round blank of diameter Db are determined as: for the blanking die diameter, Db
76 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

blanking punch diameter, Db ― 2c

.. (5.3)

Punch and die sizes for a round hole of

diameter Dh are determined as:

Hole die diameter, Dh + 2c .. (5.4)

In order for the slug or blank to drop

through the die, the die opening must
have an angular clearance (see Figure
19.7) of 0.25° to 1.5° on each side. Fig. 5.5 Die and hole size

5.3.3 Determination of cutting force

The force required to punch out a blank is basically the product of the shear
strength of the sheet metal and the total area being sheared along the periphery.
The maximum punch force, F, can be determined by:

F = S×t×L (5.5)

where S = shear strength of the sheet metal, MPa (lb/in2); t = stock thickness,
mm (in), and L length of the cut edge, mm (in).

If shear strength is unknown, an alternative way of estimating the cutting force is

to use the tensile strength:

F = 0.7(TS) ×t×L (5.6)

where TS= ultimate tensile strength MPa (lb/in2).

5.3.4 Effect of shear angle

To reduce the required shearing force on the punch, shear is ground at an angle on
the face of the die or punch. The angle is called the shear angle, spreads the cut
over time and reduces the force experienced at any one moment. Therefore, the
shear is relieved of the punch or die face so that it contacts the stock over a period
of time rather than instantaneously. It may be noted that providing the shear only
reduces the maximum force to be applied but not the total work done in shearing
the component. The effect of shear is shown schematically in Fig. 5.6.
77
 Fig. 5.6 Effect of shear on the maximum load on punch.

The provision of the shear on the punch will change the slug whereas shear
provided on the die would make the stock left on the die to bend, as shown in Fig.
5.7. Hence the shear is provided on the die for blanking and on the punch for
piercing.

Fig. 5.7 Effect of shear on punch with the resultant distortion of the slug.

5.4 Other Cutting Operations

The three most important operations in press working that cut metal by the shearing
mechanism are shearing, blanking, and punching. Besides blanking and piercing,
there are a number of other shearing processes which are also used in industrial
practice, but to a lesser extent. They are: cut-off, parting, trimming, shaving,
nibbling, notching, lancing, etc.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

a) Shearing: Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line

between two cutting edges, as shown in Fig. 5.8(a). Shearing is typically used
to cut large sheets into smaller sections for subsequent pressworking operations.

b) Blanking: It is a process in which the punch removes a portion of material from

the stock which is a sheet metal strip of the necessary thickness and width, as
shown in Fig. 5.8(b). The part that is cut out is the desired product in the
operation and is called the blank.

c) Punching: Punching, also sometimes called piercing, is similar to blanking

except that it produces a hole, and the separated piece is scrap, called the slug.
The remaining stock is the desired part. The distinction is illustrated in Fig.
5.8(c).

Fig. 5.8 Sheet metal cutting operations: (a) shearing, (b) blanking and (c) punching.

d) Cutoff: Cutoff is a shearing operation in which blanks are separated from a

sheet-metal strip by cutting the opposite sides of the part in sequence, as shown
in Fig. 5.9(a). With each cut, a new part is produced. The features of a cutoff
operation that distinguish it from a conventional shearing operation are:
• the cut edges are not necessarily straight, and
• the blanks can be nested on the strip in such a way that scrap is avoided.

e) Parting: Parting involves cutting a sheet-metal strip by a punch with two cutting
edges that match the opposite sides of the blank, as shown in Fig. 5.9(b). This
might be required because the part outline has an irregular shape that precludes
perfect nesting of the blanks on the strip. Parting is less efficient than cutoff in
the sense that it results in some wasted material.

79
 Fig. 5.9 Sheet metal cutting operations: (a) Cutoff and (b) parting.

f) Trimming: In operations such as drop forging and die casting, a small amount
of extra metal gets spread out near the parting plane, which is termed as flash.
The flash is to be trimmed (Fig. 5.9 a) before the casting or forging is to be
used.

g) Shaving: Shaving is a cutting operation that improves the quality and accuracy
of blanked parts by removing a thin strip of metal along the edges. For close
tolerance work, the blanking or piercing process is followed by shaving (Fig.
5.9 b) which removes the burr left on the product.

h) Perforating: Perforating involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of

holes in sheet metal, as in Fig.5.9 c. The hole pattern is usually for decorative
purposes, or to allow passage of light, gas, or fluid.

i) Nibbling: Nibbling, shown in Fig. 5.9 d, is removing the metal in small

increments. When a specific contour is to be cut in a sheet metal, a small punch
is used to punch repeatedly along the necessary contour, generating the required
profile. Nibbling is resorted to when the contour is long and a separate punch
is impractical and uneconomical.

j) Notching: Notching, shown in Fig. 5.9 e, is a method to cut a specified small

portion of metal towards the edge of the stock.

k) Lancing: In sheet metal, lancing is an operation in which a single line cut or

slit is made part way across the strip stock so that part can be formed or bent
into a required shape without removing any metal, as given in Fig. 5.9 f.
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

(a) Trimming (b) Shaving (c) Perforating

(d) Nibbling (e) Notching (f) Lancing

Fig. 5.9 Sheet metal cutting operations: (a) trimming, (b) shaving, (c) perforating, (d) nibbling,
(e) notching, and (f) lancing.

5.5 Problems and Solutions

Problem-1: A blanking operation is to be performed on 2.0 mm thick cold-rolled

steel (half hard). The part is circular with diameter = 75.0 mm. Determine the
appropriate punch and die sizes for this operation.

Solution: From Table 5.1, for cold-rolled steel, Ac = 0.075.

Thus, clearance, c = 0.075(2.0) = 0.15 mm.

Punch diameter = Db ― 2c = 75.0 ― 2(0.15) = 74.70 mm.

Die diameter = Db = 75.0 mm.

Problem-2: Determine the die and punch sizes for blanking a circular disc of 20
mm diameter from a C20 steel sheet whose thickness is 1.5 mm. Also calculate the
required punching force.

Solution: From the book, we get, shear strength of C20 steel is = 294 MPa, and
ultimate tensile strength is 490-590 MPa.

Clearance, c = 0.0032 × t × τ = 0.0032 × 1.5 × 294 = 0.0823  0.10 mm

81
 [or using the value from Table 5.1, c = 0.060(1.5) = 0.09 mm.  0.10 mm]

Since it is a blanking operation, die size, Db = blank size = 20 mm

Punch size = Db –2 c = 20 – 2 × 0.10 = 19.8 mm

If it were a piercing (punching) operation, punch size = blank size = 20 mm

Die size = hole size = blank size + 2c = 20 + 2 × 0.10 = 20.2 mm

Punching force, F = L×t×τ = π20 ×1.5×294 = 27.709 KN

Problem-3: A compound die will be used to blank and punch a large washer out
of 6061ST aluminum alloy sheet stock 3.50 mm thick. The outside diameter of the
washer is 50.0 mm and the inside diameter is 15.0 mm. Determine (a) the punch
and die sizes for the blanking operation, and (b) the punch and die sizes for the
punching operation.

Solution: From Table 5.1, Ac = 0.060. Thus, c = 0.060(3.50) = 0.210 mm

(a) Blanking punch diameter = Db ― 2c = 50 ― 2(0.21) = 49.58 mm

Blanking die diameter = Db = 50.00 mm

(b) Punching punch diameter = Dh = 15.00 mm

Punching die diameter = Dh + 2c = 30 + 2(0.210) = 15.42 mm

Problem-4: A round disk of 150-mm diameter is to be blanked from a strip of 3.2-

mm, half-hard cold-rolled steel whose shear strength 310 MPa. Determine (a) the
appropriate punch and die diameters, and (b) blanking force.

Solution: (a) From Table 5.1, the clearance allowance for half-hard cold-rolled
steel is Ac = 0.075. Accordingly, c = 0.075(3.2 mm) 0.24 mm

The blank is to have a diameter = 150 mm, and die size determines blank size.

Therefore, die diameter, Db = 150.00 mm;

Punch diameter = 150 – 2 (0.24) 149.52 mm

(b) The blanking force, F = π ×150 × 310 × 3.2 = 467,469 N

82 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Problem-5: A hole with 100 mm diameter is to be punched in a steel plate of 6

mm thickness. The material is cold rolled C40 steel for which the maximum shear
strength can be taken as 550 MPa. With normal clearance on the tools, cutting is
complete at 40% penetration of the punch. Give suitable diameters for the punch
and die, and shear angle on the punch in order to bring the work within the capacity
of a 200 kN press available in the shop.

Solution: From the above information, we get, for τ = 550 MPa

Clearance per side, c = 0.0032 × 6 × 550 = 0.45 mm

Punch diameter = 100 mm, and die diameter, Db = 100 + 2 × 0.45 = 100.9 mm

Without any shear, the maximum punching load, F=100 π × 6 × 550 = 1036.86 kN

Total work done in punching = 1036.86 × 6 × 0.4 = 2488.5 J

Let p be the penetration of the punch in the form of shear reduces the punch load
to the available 200 kN. Therefore, work done with shearing and 200 kN max. load

= 200 (0.4 × 6 + p)

Equating the two, we get, the value of p as: 2488.5 = 200 (0.4 × 6 + p)

p = (2488.5―480)/200 =10.0425 mm

Assuming a balanced shear on the punch, we get the shear angle

 10.0425 
 = tan −1   = tan ( 0.20085) = 11.35
−1 0
 100 / 2 

83
 Lecture 6
Sheet Metal Working: Bending

6.1 Bending

Bending is one of the most common industrial forming operations. It is the plastic
deformation of metals about a linear axis with little or no change in the surface
area. Multiple bends can be made simultaneously, but each axis must be linear and
independent of the others. If multiple bends are made with a single die, the process
is often called forming.

Bending in sheet-metal work is defined as the straining of the metal around a

straight axis, as in Fig. 6.1. The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes
a permanent set upon removal of the stresses that caused it. However, when the
axes of deformation are not linear or are not independent, the processes are known
as drawing and/or stretching.

During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the neutral plane is
compressed, while the metal on the outside of the neutral plane is stretched. The
location that is neither stretched nor compressed is known as the neutral axis of the
bend. But when the material reaches the plastic stage, the neutral axis moves
downward, since the material oppose compression much better than tension. These
strain conditions can be seen in Fig. 6.1(b).

Fig. 6.1 (a) Bending of sheet metal; (b) both compression and tensile elongation of the metal
occur in bending.
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

In Fig. 6.1 (a), the metal of thickness t is bent through an angle called the bend
angle α. This results in a sheet-metal part with an included angle   , where α + 
= 180°. The bend radius R is normally specified on the inside of the part, rather
than at the neutral axis, and is determined by the radius on the tooling used to
perform the operation. The bend is made over the width of the workpiece w.

6.2 Bending Types

Bending is the forming of solid parts, where angled or ring-shaped workpieces are
produced from sheet or strip metal. In bending, the plastic state is brought about
by a bending load. Depending on the shape of die used, bending is broadly
classified as:

1. Air bending,
2. Die bending (bottom bending),
3. Edge bending, and
4. Roll bending.

Air bending: In air bending, the tooling, punch and die, are
used only to convey energy. The workpiece rests on two
points. The punch carries out the bending movement. A
curvature sets in, growing in the center. Air bending, shown
in Fig. 6.2, is used mainly to straighten workpieces. Fig. 6.2 Air bending.

Die bending: In die bending, the bending punch presses the workpiece into the
bending die. The deformation ends with a localized compressive stress in the die
(bottoming the punch). Here, a difference is made between V-bending and U-
bending.

• V-bending: The bending punch and die are V-shaped, as in Fig. 6.3 (a). In the
initial phase, air bending takes place, with the workpiece radius constantly
changing. It is only when it reaches the last phase that the final form is imparted
by bottoming the punch.

• U-bending: In U-bending, as shown in Fig. 6.3 (b), the workpiece is also given
its final shape by bottoming the punch. In this case, to prevent the bottom from
bulging out during bending, a backing pad is often used. During the bending
process it already starts pressing against the bottom of the workpiece.
85
 Fig. 6.3 Die bending: U- bending (left) and V-bending (right).

Roll bending: During roll bending, the bending moment is created by three (or
more) rolls, as in Fig. 6.4 (a). The top roll is moved around an angle, and the height
of both lower rolls are adjusted. Both are driven by a motor. By adjusting the
relative positions of the rolls, any diameters can be produced.

Pad

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.4 (a) Roll bending, and (b) Edge bending; (1) before and (2) after bending.

Edge bending: Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal. A
pressure pad is used to hold the base of the part against the die, while the punch
forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of the die. In the setup shown in
Fig. 6.4(b), edge bending is limited to bends of 90° or less.

6.3 Analysis of Bending

Some of the important terms in sheet-metal bending are identified in Fig. 6.1(a).
The metal of thickness t is bent through an angle α, which results an included angle
  , where α +   = 180°. The bend radius R is specified on the inside of the part,
rather than at the neutral axis, and the bend is made over the width w.

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Bend allowance: If the bend radius is small relative to stock thickness, the metal
tends to stretch during bending. Since the neutral axis remains constant, it is the
required to determine length of the final bent section. This length is called the bend
allowance, and it can be estimated as follow:


Ab = 2 ( R + Kbat ) (6.1)
360

where Ab = bend allowance, mm (in); α = bend angle, degrees; R = bend radius,

mm (in); t = stock thickness, mm (in); and Kba = factor to estimate stretching. The
values are recommended for Kba = 0.33 if R < 2t, and Kba = 0.50 if R ≥2t.

Springback: When the bending pressure is removed at the end of the deformation
operation, elastic energy remains in the bent part, causing it to recover partially
toward its original shape. This elastic
recovery is called springback, results as the
increase in included angle of the bent part.
This is illustrated in Fig. 6.5 and is expressed:

 f − i
SB = (6.2)
i Fig. 6.5 Springback effect in bending.

where SB = springback; αi and αf = included angle of the bending tool and sheet-
metal part, degrees, respectively. Two common methods for compensating the
springback are overbending and bottoming.

• In overbending, the punch angle and radius are fabricated slightly smaller
than the specified angle on the final part so that the sheet metal springs back
to the desired value.
• Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the stroke, thus
plastically deforming it in the bend region.

Bending force: The force required to perform bending depends on the geometry of
the punch-and-die and the strength, thickness, and length of the sheet metal. The
maximum bending force can be estimated by means of the following equation:

(TS) wt 2
Fb = Kbf (6.3)
D
87
 where Fb = bending force, N (lb); TS = tensile strength of the
sheet metal, MPa (lb/in2); w = width of part in the direction
of the bend axis, mm (in); t = stock thickness, mm (in); and
D = die opening dimension as defined in Fig. 6.6, mm (in).

The value of Kbf is constant for various bending process. Its Fig. 6.6 Die opening.
value depends on type of bending: for V-bending, Kbf = 1.33 for die opening of 8t,
1.20 for die opening of 16t; Kbf = 0.67 for U-bending; and Kbf = 0.33 for edge
bending.

Dimensions of starting blank: Metal tends to thin and lengthen when it is bent.
The amount of lengthening is a function of both the stock thickness and the bend
radius. Fig. 6.7 illustrates the dimension of blank length for bent products. In
addition, the minimum length of any protruding leg should be at least equal to the
bend radius plus 1.5 times the thickness of the metal. Some design criteria are:

Fig. 6.7 Determination of starting blank length for bending operations. Inset table is to
determine D based on size of radius R, where t is the stock thickness.

• Whenever possible, the tolerance on bent parts should not be less than 0.8
mm (32 1 in).
• Bends of 900 or greater should not be specified without first determining
whether the material and bending method will permit them.
• Parts with multiple bends should be designed with the same bend radius.
• Bending near the edge of a material will distort the edge.

6.4 Other Bending Related Operations

Flanging: Flanging, as in Fig. 6.8, is a bending operation in which the edge of a

sheet-metal part is bent at a 90° angle (usually) to form a rim or flange. It is often
used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal.
88 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II
 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Fig. 6.8 Flanging: (a) straight flanging, (b) stretch flanging, and (c) shrink flanging.

• In stretch flanging (Fig. 6.8b), the flange periphery is subjected to tensile

stresses that, if excessive, can lead to cracking along the periphery.

• In shrink flanging (Fig. 6.8c), the flange is subjected to compressive hoop

stresses that, if excessive, can cause the flange periphery to wrinkle.

Hemming: Hemming, also called flattening, involves bending the edge of the sheet
over on itself as in Fig. 6.9 a, in more than one bending step. This is often done to
eliminate the sharp edge on the piece, to increase stiffness, and to improve
appearance.

Fig. 6.9 Bending related operations: (a) hemming, (b) seaming, and (c) curling.

Seaming: Seaming is a bending operation that can be used to join the ends of sheet
metal in some form of mechanical interlock. Fig. 6.9 b shows the most common
seam design that can be formed by a series of small rollers. Common products
include cans, pails, drums, and other similar containers.

Curling: Curling, also called beading, forms the edges of the part into a roll or curl,
as in Fig. 6.9 c. Beads improve the appearance of the part and eliminate exposed
sharp edges that can be hazardous. Examples of products in which curling is used
include hinges, pots and pans, and pocket-watch cases. These examples show that
curling can be performed over straight or curved bend axes.
89
 6.5 Problems and Solutions

Problem-1: A bending operation is to

be performed on 5.00 mm thick cold-
rolled steel. The part drawing is given
in Fig. 6.10. (i) Determine the blank
size required. (ii) Solve the problem
except that the bend radius R = 11.35
mm.

Solution: (i) From the above Fig. 6.10 Part in bending operation
information, we get

From drawing, R = 8.50 mm; included angle   = 40°, and bend angle α = 140°

[⸪ α +   = 180°].

  
Bend allowance, Ab = 2   ( R + Kbat ) ; as, R/t = (8.5)/(5.00) = 1.7, < 2.0;
 360 
therefore, Kba = 0.333

    140 
Ab = 2   ( R + Kbat ) = 2   (8.5 + 0.33  5) = 24.84 mm
 360   360 

Dimensions of starting blank: w = 35 mm, L = 58 + 24.84 + 46.5 = 129.34 mm

(ii) at, R = 11.35 mm, R/t = (11.35)/(5.00) = 2.270 > 2.0; therefore, Kba = 0.5

Bend allowance, Ab = 2π(140/360)(11.35 + 0.5×5) = 34.21 mm

Dimensions of starting blank: w = 35 mm, L = 58 + 34.21 + 46.5 = 138.71 mm

Problem-2: Determine the bending force required in Problem 1 if the bend is to be

performed in a V-die with a die opening dimension of 40 mm. The material has a
tensile strength of 600 MPa and a shear strength of 430 MPa.

Solution: For V-bending, Kbf = 1.33 [⸪ die opening, D = 8t = 8 × 5 = 40 mm].

(TS ) wt 2 600  35  52
Bending force, Fb = Kbf = 1.33 = 17,460 N
D 40
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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Problem-3: A sheet-metal part 3.0 mm thick and 20.0 mm long is bent to an

included angle = 60° and a bend radius = 7.5 mm in a V-die. The metal has a yield
strength = 220 MPa and a tensile strength = 340 MPa. Compute the required force
to bend the part, given that the die opening dimension = 15 mm.

Solution: For V-bending, Kbf = 1.33 [⸪ die opening, D = 8t = 8 × 3 = 15 mm].

R = 7.50 mm; included angle   = 60°, ⸫ bend angle α = 120° [⸪ α +   = 180°].

(TS ) wt 2 340  20  32
Force required, Fb = Kbf = 1.33 = 5,426 N
D 15

Problem-4: A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in Fig. 6.11. The metal has
a modulus of elasticity 205×103
MPa, yield strength 275 MPa, and
tensile strength 450 MPa.
Determine (i) the starting blank
size and (ii) the bending force if a
V-die is used with a die opening
dimension 25 mm. Fig. 6.11 Sheet-metal part (dimensions in mm).

Solution: The starting blank width, w = 44.5 mm

(i) For the included angle   = 120°, ⸫ bend angle α = 60° [⸪ α +   = 180°].

As R/t = 4.75/3.2 = 1.48 < 2.0). therefore, Kba = 0.33

Bend allowance, Ab = 2    ( R + Kbat ) = 2  60  ( 4.75 + 0.333  3.2 ) = 6.08 mm


360  360 

The blank size at w = 44.5 mm, L = 38 + 6.06 + 25 = 69.08 mm

(ii) From data, D = 25 mm; 8×t = 8×3.2 = 25.6; Kbf = 1.33.

(TS ) wt 2 450  44.5  (3.2) 2

Force required, Fb = Kbf = 1.33 = 10,909 N
D 25

Problem-5: Calculate the length of sheet required for making the component
shown in Fig. 6.12, out of 3 mm C20 steel sheet.

91
 Solution: For the left bending, R/t = 5/3
= 1.67 < 2.0 ⸫ Kba = 0.33

  
Ab = 2   ( R + Kbat )
 360 

 90 
Ab = 2   ( 5 + 0.33  3) = 9.40 mm
 360  Fig. 6.11 Sheet-metal part (dimensions in mm).

Again for right side of bending, R/t = 10/3 = 3.33 > 2.0 ⸫ Kba = 0.50

 90 
Bending allowance, Ab = 2   (10 + 0.5  3) = 18.06 mm.
 360 

Therefore, the stock length, L = 50 + 9.40 + 100 + 18.06 + 50 ―(5 +3) ―(10 + 3)

= 206.46 mm.

Problem-5: Estimate the force required for a 90° bending of St 50 steel of

thickness 2 mm in a V die. The die opening can be taken as eight times the
thickness. The length of the bent part is 1 m.

Also, calculate the bending force required for a C50 steel 1.5 mm sheet of width 1
m to be bent in a wiping die. The die radius used is 3 mm.

Solution: Let, for St 50 steel, the ultimate tensile strength can be taken as 500 MPa.
Die opening, D = 2 × 8 = 16 mm.

(TS ) wt 2 500  1000  (2) 2

Bending force, Fb = Kbf = 1.33 = 166,250 N = 166.25 KN
D 16

2nd Part: From materials properties table, for C50 steel, ultimate tensile strength
can be taken as 800 MPa.

Die opening, D = 3 + 1.5 +3 = 7.5 mm for wiping (edge) die, Kbf = 0.33

(TS ) wt 2 800  1000  (1.5)2

Bending force, Fb = Kbf = 0.33 = 79,200 N
D 7.5

92 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 7
Sheet Metal Working: Bulging,
Breaking, Explosive Forming

5.6 Bulging

Bulging is a process that involves placing a tubular, conical or curvilinear part in

a split female die and expanding it with pressure from the polyurethane punch.

Bulging basically involves placing a tubular, conical, or drawn workpiece in a split

female die and expanding it, such as by means of a flexible plug (rubber or
polyurethane). Fluid or rubber transmits the pressure required to expand a metal
blank or tube outward against a split female mold or die. For simple shapes, rubber
tooling can be inserted, compressed, and then easily removed, as shown in Fig. 7.1.

(a)

Fig. 7.1 Bulging process: (a) method of bulging tubes with rubber tooling, (b) bulging dies,
fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular blanks under internal pressure.; (c) products made.

For complicated shapes, fluid pressure may be required to form the bulge. More
complex equipment is required because pressurized seals must be formed and
maintained, while still enabling the easy insertion and removal of material that is
required for mass production. The punch is then retracted, the plug returns to its
original shape (by elastic recovery) and the part is removed by opening the die.
93
 The major advantage of using polyurethane plugs is that they are resistant to
abrasion, wear, and lubricants, furthermore, they do not damage the surface finish
of the part being formed. Hydraulic pressure can also be used in this operation, but
will require sealing and hydraulic controls. Typical arrangement of a tube bulging
machine is illustrated in Fig. 7.2.

Vertical or horizontal segmented dies are commonly used for bulging, the force
being applied by either hydraulic or mechanical means. This die does not have a
die cavity, the tube being pulled on the segmental punch. The workpiece pulls on
the punch, which has the shape of the final part. Expansion is thus carried out by
expanding the punch mechanically. Fig. 7.3 shows the action of force in segmented
punches.

Fig. 7.2 Bulging press. The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug.

Typical products made are coffee or water pitchers, beer barrels, and beads on oil
drums. For parts with complex shapes, the plug (instead of being cylindrical) may
be shaped in order to apply higher pressures at critical regions of the part.

5.7 Breaking

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 Comprehensive Lecture Notes on Manufacturing Process II

5.8 Explosive forming

Problem-4:

Solution:

3.8 Lecture Summary

3.9 Questions

Sheet metal working: Shearing and forming, Bending, Bulging, Breaking,

Explosive forming.

95