DOHA MODERN INDIAN SCHOOL

GRADE 12 PHYSICS
ATOMS

Thomson’s Model of Atom ( Plum Pudding Model)

According to J.J Thomson,

 Each atom consists of negatively charged particles called electrons.
 Since atom as whole is neutral, so there must also be positively charged particles
in the atom such that the net charge on the atom is zero.
 It is a sphere of positive charges of uniform density of about 10-10 m diameter in
which negative charges are embedded like plums in the pudding, so as named as
plum pudding model.
Disadvantages
 Unable to explain the spectral lines of hydrogen atom.
 Unable to explain the large angle scattering of α- particles from thin metal foils as
observed by Rutherford.

1
 Rutherford’s α- particle scattering Experiment

The experimental set up consists of

a radioactive source which emits α- particles
placed inside a lead cavity. A pencil of α-
particle is obtained by using lead collimators.
The beam of α- particles are allowed to strike
on thin gold foil of very small thickness
2.1 ×10 -7 m. The scattering of α- particle is
observed through a rotatable detector
consisting of ZnS screen and a microscope.
The α- particle produces bright flashes or
scintillations on the ZnS screen.
The angle between the incident beam and
the deflected beam is called Scattering angle (θ).
A graph is plotted by taking scattering angle along x-axis and number of α- particles
scattered along y- axis.

From the graph it is clear that,

 Most of the α- particles pass through the atom without any deviation.
 Only about 0.14 % of the incident α particle scattered by more than 10.
 A few α- particles (1 in 8000) were deflected through large angles, and a few of them
retraced their path.
Conclusions
The observations led to the following conclusions.
 As most of the α- particles pass through the gold foil un deflected, so it indicates that
most of the space of the atom is empty.
 Α- particles being positively charged and having large mass as compared to an electron
could only be deflected by a large repulsive force due to heavy positively charged

2
 region. He concluded that the positive charge in the atom were concentrated in a very
small region at the centre of the atom. He named this heavy and positively charged
region as the nucleus.
 The α- particles which travel towards the nucleus directly, get retarded due to coulomb’s
force of repulsion.

Distance of the closest Approach ( Size of

the nucleus)
The minimum distance up to which an
energetic α- particle travelling directly towards
a nucleus can move before coming to rest and
then retracing its path is known as distance of
closest approach. It is denoted by d or r0.
Let an α- particle of charge +2e having
energy E is directed towards the centre of the nucleus having charge Ze.
The force of repulsion between the nucleus and the α- particle is given by
(𝑍𝑒)2𝑒
F= 𝑘
𝑟2
Due to this force of repulsion, the velocity of α- particle goes on decreasing and
the particle comes to rest at the distance of the closest approach.
Kinetic energy of the particle = Potential energy of the system
1 𝐾 𝑍𝑒.2𝑒
𝑚v 2 =
2 𝑑
𝑘 2𝑧𝑒 2
𝑑=
( ½ 𝑚𝑣 2 )

2𝑧𝑒 2
𝑑=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 ( ½ 𝑚𝑣 2 )
This expression gives the distance of the closest approach and determines the
radius or size of the nucleus.
Impact Parameter (b)
The perpendicular distance between the initial velocity vector of α- particle and
the line of the nucleus is known as impact parameter.
1 𝑧𝑒 2 𝜃
𝑏= cot
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐾. 𝐸 2
Where, 𝜃 is angle of scattering and K.E is kinetic energy
Clearly from the above equation, impact parameter is inversely proportional to
angle of scattering.
When the impact parameter is small the deflection will be more, and vice versa.

3
 Rutherford atomic Model (planetary Model)
 Every atom consists of a tiny central core, called the atomic nucleus, in which the
entire positive charge and mass is concentrated.
 Size of the nucleus is of the order of 10-15 m (Fermi), which is comparatively very
small with the size of the atom which is of the order of 10-10 m.
 An atom is neutral, so the number of electrons will be equal to the number of
protons.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits. The centripetal force is
provided by the coulomb’s electrostatic force of attraction.
Electron Orbits:
• According to Rutherford’s atomic model, Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
circular orbits. The centripetal force is provided by the coulomb’s electrostatic
force of attraction.
Fc = Fe
𝑚v2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
𝟏 𝒆𝟐
𝐫= ----------- (1)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒎𝐯 𝟐
The above equation represents the radius of electron orbit.
1 𝑒2
𝑚v 2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
1 𝑒2
½ 𝑚v 2 = = Kinetic energy (K) --------- (2)
8 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
−1 𝑒 2
P.E, U = ---------- (3)
4 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
−1 𝑒 2
Total energy of electron in hydrogen atom, E = K + U = -------------- (4)
8 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
The –ve sign in the above equation indicates electron is bound to the nucleus.
We can write, K = -E ; U = -2 K; U = 2 E

Limitations of Rutherford Model

 By classical electromagnetic theory the electron in orbits will be in accelerated
motion and emits radiations continuously. As a result it must spiral inwards and
eventually fall into the nucleus. Rutherford model was unable to explain the stability
of the atom.
 By classical electromagnetic theory the electron in orbits emits radiations
continuously. Consequently the atom should emit continuous spectrum instead of
line spectrum.

4
 Bohr’s Postulates
 According to Bohr electrons revolve around the nucleus in stationary orbits
where they don’t radiate energy. These are called stationary states of the atom.
 In stationary orbits the total angular momentum of the electron will be equal to
ℎ
the integral multiple of . It is known as Bohr’s quantum condition of stationary
2𝜋
orbits.
𝑛ℎ
𝐿= , where h is plank’s constant. h= 6.626 × 10-34 Js.
2𝜋

 When an electron jumps from higher energy state (E2) to lower energy state
(E1), the difference in energy is emitted in the form of radiation. It is known as
Bohr’s frequency condition.
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑶𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎

n2 h2 ε0
rn = , n = 1,2,3, ……. Which is known as principal quantum number.
πmze2
For Hydrogen atom, Z =1. Then
n2 h2 ε0
rn = -------- (1)
πme2
Clearly we can say that rn ∝ n2
𝒊𝒆; 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍
𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓.
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐, 𝟏: 𝟒: 𝟗: … … … . . 𝒏𝟐
The size of innermost orbit can be obtained by taking n = 1 in eq (3)
h2 ε
0
i.e., r1 = a0 = = 0.53 Ao Which is known as Bohr radius.
πme2
Thus, we can write rn = n2a0 = n2 (0.53) Ao

𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑶𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎

ze2
vn = -------- (2)
2ε0 𝑛 ℎ
In the case of Hydrogen atom, Z = 1. Then
e2 2.18 𝑋 106
vn = = m/s
2ε0 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛
1
Clearly, from the above equation we can say that vn ∝
𝑛
𝑨𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒈𝒐𝒆𝒔
𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈.

5
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑶𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 2𝜋( 𝜋𝑚𝑒2
)
Time period of the electron in the nth orbit is given by , T = = 𝑒2
𝑣𝑛
2𝜀0 𝑛ℎ
4𝜀02 ℎ3 𝑛3
T= = 1.53 × 10−10 𝑛3 𝑠
𝑚𝑒 4
Frequency of the electron in the nth orbit is given by,
1 𝑚𝑒 4 0.65×1010
𝑓= = = Hz.
𝑇 4𝜀02 ℎ3 𝑛 3 𝑛3
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑶𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
The total energy of the electron in the nth orbit is given by;
𝒁𝟐 𝒎𝒆𝟒
𝑬𝒏 = −
𝟖𝜺𝟐𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
For Hydrogen atom, Z =1. Then
me4
En =− --------- (1)
8ε20 n2 h2
By substituting the values in the above equation, we get
13.6
𝐸𝑛 = − eV where, n = 1,2,3, --------
𝑛2
As the order increases the energy also increases.

Energy Level diagram:The diagram which represents the total energy of electron in
different stationary orbits is called energy level diagram.

Rydberg’s formula and spectral series

• According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an electron makes a
transition from the higher energy state (E2) to the lower energy state(E1), then it

6
 radiates a photon whose energy is equal to energy difference between the two
levels.
i.e., ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 ,
𝐸 −𝐸
Frequency of the emitted photon is given by, 𝜈 = 2 1
ℎ
𝑚𝑒 4 𝑚𝑒 4
Since, 𝐸1 == − and , 𝐸2 == −
8𝜀02 𝑛12 ℎ2 8𝜀02 𝑛22 ℎ2

𝑚𝑒 4 𝑚𝑒 4
ℎ𝜈 = − +
8𝜀02 𝑛22 ℎ 2 8𝜀02 𝑛12 ℎ2

𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
ℎ𝜈 = ( − )
8𝜀02 ℎ2 𝑛12 𝑛22
𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
𝜈= ( − ) ----------- (1)
8𝜀02 ℎ3 𝑛12 𝑛22
The above equation is known as Rydberg’s formula.
𝑐 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
= ( − )
𝜆 8𝜀02 ℎ3 𝑛12 𝑛22
1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
= ( − ) ---------- (2)
𝜆 8𝜀02 𝑐ℎ3 𝑛12 𝑛22
𝑚𝑒 4
In the above equation = R, the Rydberg constant. ----- (3)
8𝜀02 𝑐ℎ3

If we insert the values of various constants in Eq. (3), we get R = 1.03 × 107 m–1.
This is a value very close to the value (1.097 × 107 m–1) obtained from the empirical
Balmer formula. This agreement between the theoretical and experimental values of the
Rydberg constant provided a direct and striking confirmation of the Bohr’s model.

7
Line spectra of Hydrogen Atom: Line spectra originate in transitions between energy
levels.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹 [ 𝟐 − 𝟐]
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

Where, R = 1.097 x 107 m-1 which is known as Rydberg constant.

1. Lyman Series- It is obtained by the transition of electron from any outer orbit to
the first orbit of hydrogen atom. This spectral series lies in the ultra violet region
of the electromagnetic spectrum
𝑛1 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 2,3,4, … … … …
1 𝟏
= 𝑹 [𝟏 − 𝟐 ]
𝜆 𝒏𝟐

2. Balmer Series- It is obtained by the transition of electron from any outer orbit to
the second orbit of hydrogen atom. This spectral series lies in the visible region
of the electromagnetic spectrum
𝑛1 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 3,4,5, … … … …
1 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹 [ − 𝟐]
𝜆 𝟒 𝒏𝟐

8
 3. Paschen Series- It is obtained by the transition of electron from any outer orbit
to the thrid orbit of hydrogen atom. This value lies in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum
𝑛1 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 4,5,6, … … … …
1 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹 [ − 𝟐]
𝜆 𝟗 𝒏𝟐
4. Brackett Series- It is obtained by the transition of electron from any outer orbit to
the fourth orbit of hydrogen atom. This value lies in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
𝑛1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 5,6,7, … … … …
1 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹 [ − 𝟐]
𝜆 𝟏𝟔 𝒏𝟐
5. Pfund Series- It is obtained by the transition of electron from any outer orbit to
the third orbit of hydrogen atom. This value lies in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
𝑛1 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 6,7,8, … … … …
1̅ 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹 [ − 𝟐]
𝜆 𝟐𝟓 𝒏𝟐

De-Broglie’s Eplnation of Bohr’s Second Postulate of Quantization

• Bohr’s Second Postulate: The electron, in an atom,
revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for
which its angular momentum is an integral multiple of
ℎ
2𝜋
ℎ
i.e., L = mvr = n
2𝜋
h
According to de – Broglie’s Hypothesis, 𝜆 = --------- (1)
mv
• According to de-Broglie, the stationary orbits are
those which contain complete de- Broglie wavelength
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 -------- (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
h
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛 ( )
mv
ℎ
mvr = n
2𝜋
which is the second postulate of Bohr atomic model.

9
Limitations of Bohr Atomic Model:
• The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. Because, the formulation of
Bohr model involves electrical force between positively charged nucleus and
electron. It does not include the electrical forces between electrons which
necessarily appear in multi-electron atoms.
• While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light emitted by
hydrogenic atoms, the model is unable to explain the relative intensities of the
frequencies in the spectrum.

10