FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS:

 Sharing the available radio spectrum by assigning specific frequency channels to subscribers either on permanent basis or on
temporary basis.
 Each pair of communicating mobile subscribers is assigned different frequency channels to enable full duplex communication.

 The frequency bandwidth allocated to each mobile subscriber is called the subband Bc.

 The spectral efficiency in FDMA systems depends on how closely the individual channels (frequency subbands) can be assigned.

 Several factors limit the adjacent channel spacing, the most important of which is adjacent channel interference (ACI): FDMA
requires tight RF filtering to minimize ACI
 The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow

 Higher cost, less complex

 Where, Bt is the total

spectrum allocation, Bg is the

guard band allocated at the edge of the allocated spectrum band, and Bc is the channel bandwidth.

 During the call, a mobile subscriber occupies two simplex channels, one each on the uplink and downlink, for full-duplex
communication.
 The two simplex channels are spaced by fixed duplex spacing When a call is terminated, or when hand-off occurs, the occupied

channels are released which can be used by other mobile subscribers in the system
 Multiple or simultaneous mobile subscribers are accommodated in AMPS by allocating each calling or called mobile subscriber

a dedicated channel.
 Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to the mobile user, and on the reverse channel from the

mobile user to the base station.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

 Time-division multiple access (TDMA) technique refers to allowing a number
of subscribers to access a specified channel bandwidth on a time-shared basis.
 TDMA systems divide the carrier channel bandwidth into time slots, and in

each time slot only one subscriber is allowed to either transmit or receive.
 With TDMA, a base-station controller assigns time slots to subscribers for

the requested service, and an assigned time slot is held by a subscriber until it
releases it.
 The receiver synchronises to the incoming TDMA signal frame, and extracts

the time slot designated for that subscriber.

 The most critical feature of TDMA operation is time synchronization.

Frame structure:
Signaling and Control Data Bits
 These bits perform the functions that assist the receiver in performing some

auxiliary functions such as synchronization and frame error rate.

 synchronization bits in a time slot enable the receiver to recover sinusoidal

carrier essential for coherent detection.

 The frame error bits are used to estimate the unknown response of the wireless channel, which is needed for decoding the
received signal.
 The guard time between the time slots helps to minimize interference due to propagation delays along different radio paths in

the wireless channel.

Traffic Bits
 These bits represent digitized speech bits or any other

 If both forward and reverse channels use the same frequency band but they use alternating time slots in the same frame for

full duplex communication, the system is referred to as TDMA/TDD system.

 TDD techniques are used in systems where minimum interference, low system complexity and low-power consumption are of

utmost importance

TDMA/FDD
The frame efficiency of a TDMA system is
defined as the number of bits representing
digitized speech, expressed as a percentage
of the total number of bits including the
control overhead bits that are transmitted
in a frame.

• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency

with several users, where each user makes
use of non-overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission for users of TDMA
system occurs in bursts.
• Because of a discontinuous transmission,
the handoff process is simpler for a mobile
unit, as it can listen to the base stations
during idle time slots.
• TDMA uses different time slots for
transmission and the reception.
• The guard time between the slots is required.
• High synchronization overhead is required because of burst transmissions.

CDMA:
 Quite tolerant of interference
 individual mobile subscribers occupy the complete spectrum
whenever they transmit
 The integration of different types of traffic such as voice, data, and

video can be readily accomplished in a CDMA environment

 can accommodate various subscribers with different bandwidth

requirements, switching methods and technical characteristics

 precise power control techniques are essential in the efficient

operation of a CDMA system because each subscriber signal

contributes to the interference received by other subscribers.
 The different subscriber can use the same spectrum but their signal must be spread with a specific PN code to distinguish it

from other signals(PN -pseudonoise)

 In CDMA, all subscribers transmit information simultaneously by using the same carrier frequency.

 Each subscriber has its own code word, which is orthogonal to code words of other subscribers.

 To detect the information, the receiver should know the exact code word used by the transmitter and perform a time

correlation operation.
 All other code words appears as noise due to de-correlation and power should be high to minimise this noise power at the

receiver end.
 In CDMA technique, one unique code is assigned to each
subscriber and distinct codes are used for different
subscribers. This code is employed by a subscriber to mix
with each information bit before it is transmitted.
 In CDMA, each active mobile subscriber is a source of

noise to the receiver of other active mobile subscribers.

 If the number of active mobile subscribers is increased

beyond a certain number in the system, the whole CDMA

system collapses because the signal received in each
specific mobile receiver will be buried in noise.
 A CDMA system is based on spectrum-spread technology

by spreading the bandwidth of modulated signal

substantially, which makes it less susceptible to the noise and interference.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA):

 SDMA techniques control the radiated energy for each
subscriber in space by using directional or spot beam antennas at
the cell site.
 Reduction in the total transmitted power as all power would

be transmitted in the desired direction only

 Reduction in the amount of interference generated by each

transmitter because total transmit power is reduced and

localised
 Receiving a stronger signal by the receiver due to directional antenna gain and less

Interference

Advantages:
 It can be applied with FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA.

 It allows many subscribers to operate on the same frequency and/or time slot in the

same cell.
 It leads to more subscribers within the same allocated frequency spectrum with enhanced user capacity.

 This technology can be applied at the cell site without affecting the mobile subscriber.

(a) Greater Range Since the antennas are directional, they have larger gains and can therefore provide stronger received signal
strength for the same transmit power.
(b) Fewer Cell Sites are required in those geographical areas with a low subscriber density because the existing cell site has a
greater range. In areas with a high subscriber density, there is less interference. Moreover smart antennas provide greater
subscriber isolation. Hence, a single-cell site can serve more number of subscribers.
(c) Better Signal Penetration Due to the greater signal strength and increased transmitter gain, signal penetration through the
building structure is better.
(d) Less Sensitivity to Power Control Errors Due to better isolation among different subscriber signals, the probability of power
control errors was reduced considerably.
(e) Responsive to Hot Spots Traffic Conditions In strategic application areas such as airports, hotels
and conference centers, subscriber densities can become quite high at times, and directional antennas allow one or a small
number of cell sites to service these areas effectively.
MULTICARRIER MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES:
 Multicarrier multiple access schemes use multiple carrier signals at
different frequencies, sending some of the bits on each channel.
 Multiple access techniques are used to achieve high subscriber

capacity by sharing the available limited spectrum among many

subscribers simultaneously, while maintaining the desired quality of
communications.
 The objective of all these multiple access strategies is to maximize

the spectrum utilization.

 Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA),
 Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Spread-Spectrum Multiple Access and
 Space division multiple access(SDMA)
 OFDMA(Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access)

(Combine TDMA and FDMA)

Basic Cellular System connected to PSTN:

 Comprises of many low-power transmitters, each
specifically designed to serve only a small area called a
cell
 Frequency reuse concept

 Multiple access techniques

 Assignment of channels to mobile subscribers may be

static or dynamic
 Base Station: A base station serves as an air interface

as well as local central control for all mobile subscribers

within a cell, mobile units communicate directly with the
nearest base stations.
 Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO): The

MTSO controls channel assignment, call set-up, call

processing, and call termination.
- The complete process includes allocating radio-frequency channels,
signaling, switching, and supervision.
- Basically, the MTSO provides a centralized administration and
maintenance point for the entire cellular network including interfaces
with the public telephone network over voice trunks and data links.
- Base stations directly communicates with MTSO

Cell Site Equipment(CSE):

 Located at cell center

 A base station used for wireless communication with a

mobile subscriber on one side as well as signaling/data communication

with the MTSO on the other side
 A cell-site consists of a number of transreceivers, Tx/Rx

antennas mounted on a tall tower, data links, and power

plant.
 Transmits high power

 Consists of many receivers for each control and voice

channel in use At the cell-site, as well as additional receivers

for monitoring the signal strength of mobile subscribers in
adjacent cells.

BTS and BSC of CSE:

 Two main parts––cell-site transceiver and cell-site

controller
 Several Transceivers: One for each channel

 BTS includes a wideband RF power amplifier to provide the transmit power for all channels in a site or sector. Cell-site

antennas installed on a high tower are part of the BTS.

 The cell-site’s radio equipment is controlled by an on-site cell-site controller called Base Station Controller (BSC).
 It handles the air interface between cell-site radio equipment and mobile subscribers including allocation of traffic channels,
monitoring and control of power levels, signaling tones/data, and so on.
 communicate directly with the MTSO over dedicated data control links

Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) /Mobile Switching Centre

(MSC):
 It comprises of the switch and the processor

 Route calls using coaxial cables, fiber optic links, or microwave links

 contains various databases for storing the locations of local and

roaming mobile subscribers, authorizing calls, initiating hand-

offs, and billing
 Trunk circuits interconnect MTSOs with landline telephone exchange

offices within the PSTN.

 This interconnection allows calls to be made between landline

telephone subscribers and cellular mobile subscribers, as well as

among mobile subscribers of different cellular service providers in the
same operating area.
 Microwave radio links or T-carriers (wirelines) carry both voice and data

between the cell-site and the MTSO because the high-speed data link
cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone trunks.
 The electronic switching centre performs two essential functions

 It controls switching between the public landline telephone network

and the cell-site base stations for landline-to-mobile, mobile-to-landline,

and mobile-to-mobile calls.
 It processes data received from the cell-site controllers concerning

mobile subscriber status, diagnostic data, and bill-compiling

information.
OPERATION OF A CELLULAR SYSTEM:
 Two types of channels are available between the mobile subscriber and the base station: control channels and traffic channels
Control Channels:
• Used for setting up, maintaining, and monitoring calls.
• Used to establish relationship between a mobile subscriber and the nearest base station
• Used for transferring control and diagnostic information between mobile subscribers and a central cellular switch
through a cell-site.
Traffic Channels:
• Used for actual voice or data communication between users.
• These are the actual channels used for talking or sending data, like texting or browsing the internet.

Establishing Call:
 Base stations transmit on the forward control and forward voice channels and receive on the reverse control and voice

channels
 Base stations and mobile devices use different channels for sending and receiving signals.

 When a mobile device is turned on, it searches for the strongest signal and tunes into it.

 It periodically checks for stronger signals to ensure optimal connection.

Steps:
 Mobile-unit initialization or registration

 Mobile-originated calls

 Network-originated calls

 Call termination

 Hand-off procedure
Mobile-Unit Initialization or Registration:
 First scans the group of forward control channels and selects the strongest one, which usually belongs to the nearest cell site

 Mobile devices constantly monitor signal strength. If the signal weakens, they search for a stronger signal and switch to it.

 Process repeats time to time

 self-location scheme is subscriber-independent

 The mobile subscriber registers itself with the cell site as active, and this process is repeated periodically.

 The network tracks the location of each device. It periodically checks in with the network to update its location.

 When a call comes in, the network locates the device and routes the call to its current location. This ensures that calls can be

received even when the device is roaming in a different area.

Mobile originated Calls:

 Mobile (cellular)-to-landline (PSTN) call

 Mobile (cellular)-to-mobile (cellular) within the same cell

 Mobile (cellular)-to-mobile (cellular) operating in different cell

The steps involved in a mobile-to-landline call:

1. Initiation: The mobile user dials a landline number.
2. Request: The mobile phone sends the number and its own information to the base station.
3. Routing: The base station forwards the call request to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
4. Path Finding: The MSC finds a path through the landline network to the destination number.
5. Connection: The MSC assigns a voice channel to the mobile user and connects them to the landline network.
6. Ringing: The landline phone rings, and the mobile user hears a ringback tone.
7. Answering: When the landline user answers, the call is connected, and both
parties can talk.

The steps involved in a mobile-to-mobile call:

1. Initiation: The calling mobile user dials the destination number.
2. Request: The mobile phone sends the number and its own information to the base
station.
3. Location: The base station forwards the call request to the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC). The MSC locates the destination mobile.
4. Connection: The MSC assigns voice channels to both the calling and receiving mobile users.
5. Ringing: The receiving mobile phone rings.
6. Answering: When the receiving user answers, the call is connected.
7. Conversation: Both users can now talk.
8. Busy/Unavailable: If the receiving phone is busy or unavailable, the caller receives
a busy signal or a message.
9. Network Congestion: If the network is congested, the call may be
delayed or blocked.

Network-Originated Calls:
When a landline user calls a mobile user, the network sends a page message to the
mobile's current base station.
The mobile receives this page and responds, allowing the network to connect the call.
The steps involved in a landline-to-mobile call:
1. Initiation: The landline user dials the mobile number.
2. Routing: The landline network sends the call request to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
3. Location: The MSC locates the mobile user's current base station.
4. Paging: The MSC sends a page message to the mobile's base station.
5. Response: The mobile receives the page and responds, confirming its availability.
6. Connection: The MSC assigns a voice channel to the mobile and connects it to the landline network.
7. Ringing: The mobile phone rings.
8. Answering: When the mobile user answers, the call is connected, and both parties can talk.
Call Termination:
When a call is terminated the MTSO is informed and the traffic channels are released. When the mobile subscriber terminates
the call, a specific message signal is transmitted to the cell site
• The voice channel is released.
• The mobile subscriber resumes monitoring page messages through the strongest forward control channel.
Call drop:
If the signal strength becomes too weak, the call may be dropped. The network will notify both users of the dropped call.

Hand off Procedure:

When a mobile user moves between cell sites, the network automatically switches the call to a new cell site without interrupting
the conversation. This process is called a handoff. The network monitors signal strength and adjusts the connection to ensure
smooth call quality.