Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Table of contents

Module 1:- Power Generation and DC Circuits

Chapter No. Topics Page No

POWER GENERATION 1-1 to 1-5
Differences between conventional and Non-conventional
1.1 1-1
Energy Sources
1.2 Single Line diagram of Transmission & Distribution 1-2
1.3 Power Generation 1-3
1.3.1 Hydro Power Generation 1-3
1.3.2 Nuclear Power Generation 1-4
1.3.3 Solar Power Generation 1-5
DC CIRCUITS 1-6 to 1-12
1.4 Ohm’s Law 1-6
1.5 Kirchoff’s Law 1-7
1.6 Problems 8 - 12
 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION / POWER GENERATION / DC CIRCUITS
1.1 Differences Between Conventional & Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Question: Give the difference between conventional and non-conventional energy sources?
Conventional Energy Non-Conventional Energy
The sources of energy that have been used The energy sources whoseevolution has been
all around the world for a long time are done the recent years are known as non-
called conventional energy sources conventional energy sources
Ex: coal, petroleum, natural gas, firewood, Ex: solar, wind, tidal, Hydro, biofuels, etc.
etc.
They are available in limited quantity in They are available in abundance in nature.
the nature.
These sources are mainly used at large These sources are used atsmall scale in domestic
scale in commercial and industrial and specific commercial andindustrial
applications like thermal power plants, applications such as solar power for houses,
fuel in vehicles, etc. offices, etc.
They cause pollution They are usually pollution free
They have been used from centuries It is a recent development as an alternative fuel

They are exhaustible with repeated usage They are inexhaustible & continuously created in
nature
Technology for power generation is well Lot of research on new technologies for power
developed generation is done
They are also called nonrenewable sources They are also called renewable sources of energy
of energy

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

1.2 Single Line Diagram of Transmission and Distribution

Question: With a neat single line diagram explain the various steps of electrical power transmission and
distribution system? (6M) Jan 23/July 23/Jan 24

The electrical power supply system consists of 3 divisions:

1. Generation 2. Transmission 3. Distribution
Generation
➢ The electrical power is generated by alternators in generating stations at 11KV
➢ The voltage is stepped up from 11KV to 220KV using step up transformers.
Transmission
➢ The Primary transmission lines transmit the power from generating station to various substations.
➢ At this substation the voltage is step down from 220KV to 33KV by using step down transformer.
➢ Then the secondary transmission lines transmit the power to various substations and to large Industries.
Distribution
➢ In primary distribution station the voltage is step down to 33KV to 11KV using step down Transformer.
➢ These substations transmit the power to various areas and to the medium scale industries.
➢ In each area using step down transformer the voltage is step down to 11KV to 415V
➢ Most of domestic & small scale industries are supplied power at low voltage i,e 415V - 3-Phase load
and 230V - single phase loads.

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

1.3 POWER GENERATION

1.3.1 Hydro Power Generation
Question: With the block diagram explain the working of hydro/hydel power generation? (8M)
Jan23/July 23

Figure1: Block diagram of Hydro power plant

➢ Hydro power plants convert the potential energy of water into electrical energy.
➢ The chief requirement of hydel power plant is the availability of water in huge quantity at sufficient
head.
➢ This requirement can be met by constructing a Dam across a river.
➢ This stored water which contains potential energy, when allowed to pass through the
➢ Penstock, the kinetic energy of the water is converted into mechanical energy when it falls on the
blades of the turbine.
➢ As the shaft of turbine is coupled to the Generator, the Generator produces electricity.
➢ The controller controls the flow of water and helps in speed regulation to maintain constant supply
frequency.
➢ The generated power is further stepped up using a Transformer and reaches the electric utility.
➢ Water after doing useful work is discharged to the tail race.

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

1.3.2 Nuclear Power Generation

Question: With the block diagram explain the working of nuclear power generation? (8M)Jan 24

Figure 2:Block diagram of Nuclear power plant

➢ Nuclear Power plants heat is generated by nuclear fission which is used to drive the turbine.
➢ In nuclear reactor, nuclear fule used is Uranium which produces tremendous amount of heat
energy by fission process
➢ This heat energy from the reactor is extracted by pumping molten metal like liquid sodium
through the pile.
➢ The heated metal is allowed to exchange its heat to the heat exchanger by circulation.
➢ The coolant is circulated continuously through a closed loop linking with the reactor and heat
exchanger with the help of coolant pumps
➢ This circulating coolant carries the heat produced in the reactor to the heat exchanger
➢ In the heat exchanger steam is generated which is utilized to drive steam turbine coupled to an
alternator thereby producing electricity.
➢ The exhausted steam from the turbine is condensed and converted into water and then fed to the
heat exchanger again.
➢ The cycle is repeated continuously for power generation.
➢ The reactor and cooling circuits have to be shielded to eliminate radiation hazards

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

1.3.3 Solar Power Generation

Question: With block diagram explain the working of Solar power generation? (8M)Jan 23
➢ In a Solar power plant the electricity is generated using photo voltaic (PV) cells that directly
convert sunlight into electricity. These cells are arranged into panels. The Arrays are made up of such
several panels
➢ When the sun light hits the semiconductor within the PV cell, electrons are freed and bus bars collect
the running electrons which results in electric current in DC form.
➢ The Solar panels are connected to an Inverter which then converts DC into AC for home use.
➢ Electricity generated by the solar panels can be stored in batteries for use when the sun is not shining.
➢ The electricity produced by the solar power plant can be fed into the electrical grid for distribution to
homes and businesses which is a renewable form of energy.

Figure 3:Block diagram of Solar power plant

1.3.4 Wind Power Generation

Question: With the block diagram explain the working of wind power generation?(6M)

Figure 3:Block diagram of Wind power Generation

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

➢ In wind power generation the wind energy which is a renewable form of energy is used to generate
electricity.
➢ Wind Turbine: It converts kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy through its blades
➢ Gear system and coupling: It steps up the speed and transmits it to the generator rotor
➢ Generator: It Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The output of the
➢ generator is connected to the load or power grid.
➢ Controller: It senses wind direction, wind speed, generator output, temperature and initiates
appropriate control signals to take control action.

1.4 OHM’S LAW

Question: State and explain Ohm’s law and mention its limitations.(6M) (july 2023)
➢ It states that “The potential difference applied across the circuit, is directly proportional current flowing
through the circuit provided the temperature remains Constant ".
Vα I
V = RI
R - Constant of proportionality called Resistance of a conductor in ohms (Ω).
V – Potential difference across the circuit or voltage in volts (V).
I - Current in Amps (A).

Limitations of Ohms law

➢ It is not applicable to non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide. The law governing the V-I relation
is given by V=KIM , where K & M are constants
➢ It is not applicable to non-linear devices like Zener diodes, voltage regulators etc.
➢ It cannot be applies to unilateral network , example diodes and transistor which do not have the same
V-I relation in both the direction
➢ It is not applicable to 'arc lamps', because arc produced exhibits nonlinearcharacteristics.
➢ It does not hold good where temperature rise is very rapid in some metals

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

1.5 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Kirchhoff’s Current Law [KCL]
Question: State and explain Kirchoff’s laws. Illustrate with an example? (6M) Jan 23/Jan24
Statement: It states that “The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node or
Junction must equal zero”.
ΣI=0
Example: Consider a junction A in an electrical network as shown in the fig.
➢ The currents I is taken as positive as it is entering the junction.
➢ I1 and I2 are taken as negative as they are leaving the junction.

Applying KCL to the above circuit at the junction A

I = I2 + I3 Amperes

1.5.2 Kirchhof’s Voltage law [KVL]

Statement: “In any closed path, the algebraic sum of the Emf‟s and the voltage drops across the
circuit elements is equal to zero. “
Σ Emf + Σ IR drops = 0
Example: Consider an electrical network as shown in fig

I R1 R2

V2
V1

Applying KVL to the loop

- IR1 - IR2 + V2 + V1 = 0
V1+ V2 = IR1 + IR2

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

1.6 PROBLEMS

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

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 Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

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Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Table of contents

Module 2: AC fundamentals & Three Phase Circuits

Chapter No. Topics Page No

AC FUNDAMENTALS 2-1 to 2-25
2.1 Equations of AC voltage and current 2-1
2.2 Terminologies in AC wave 2-1
2.3 Phase (ɵ) & phase difference (φ) 2-2
2.4 Average value 2-3
2.5 RMS value of sinusoidal current or voltage 2-4
2.6 Form factor and peak factor in an A.C circuit 2-4
2.7 Voltage and current relationships in R, L and C circuits 2-5
2.7.1 A.C through pure Resistance 2-5
2.7.2 A.C. through pure Inductance 2-7
2.7.3 A.C. through pure Capacitance 2-9
2.7.4 A.C. through series R-L circuit 2-11
2.7.5 Impedance 2-13
2.7.6 A.C. through series R- C circuit 2-14
2.7.7 A.C. through series R-L-C circuit 2-16
2.8 Electrical powers 2-18
2.9 Formulae summary 2-19
2.10 Problems 2-21 to 2-25
THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS 2-26 to 2-29
2.11 Generation of three phase power 2-26
2.12 Advantages of three-phase systems: 2-27
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2.13 Limitations of three phase AC 2-27

Relation between line & phase values of balanced star
2.14 2-27
connections
Relation between line & phase values of balanced delta
2.15 2-28
connections
2.16 Formulae & Problem 2-29
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MODULE - 2
SINGLE PHASE AC
2.1 Equations of AC Voltage and Current
➢ Equation of A.C voltage is v = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 ( ꞷ 𝑡 )
➢ Equation of A.C current is i = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 ( ꞷ 𝑡 )
Where 𝑖 , v are instantaneous values of A.C current and voltage, Im and Vm are maximum values of
A.C. current and voltage and ω is angular velocity.

2.2 Terminologies in AC Wave

Questions:
Sketch the sinusoidal alternating current waveform and define the following terms
(i) Instantaneous value
(ii) Waveform
(iii) Time Period
(iv) Cycle
(v) Frequency
(vi) Amplitude or peak value
(vii) Angular frequency
(viii) Peak to peak value (6 Marks – Jan 2024)

i) Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant called instantaneous value.
The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are represented by ‘e’ and ‘i’

ii) Waveform: The graph of instantaneous values of an alternating quantity plotted against time is called
its waveform

iii) Time Period (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete its one cycle is known as time
period denoted by T seconds.

iv) Cycle: Each repetition of a set of positive and negative instantaneous values of the alternating quantity
is called a cycle. One cycle corresponds to 2ᴨ radians or 3600

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v) Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is known as
frequency. It is denoted as f and it is measured in Hertz (Hz)

1
𝑓= 𝐻𝑧
𝑇
As time period increases, frequency decreases.
(vi) Amplitude: The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during positive or negative half
cycle is known as amplitude. It is denoted as Vm or Im

vii) Angular frequency (ꞷ): It is the frequency expressed in electrical radians per second.

ꞷ= 2ᴨ𝑓 radians /sec

2ᴨ
or 𝜔= radians/sec
𝑇

θ=ꞷt radians
viii) Peak to peak value: The value of alternating quantity from positive peak to negative peak is called
peak to peak value. It is denoted as Ip-p or Vp-p

2.3 Phase (Ɵ) & Phase Difference (Φ)

2.3.1 Phase
The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant is the angle travelled by an alternating quantity from
reference point to that of a particular point.

2.3.2 Phase Difference

The angle difference between two rotating vectors representing the two alternating quantities
2.3.2.1 In Phase
➢ Two waveforms are in phase when the phase difference between them is zero.

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2.3.2.2 Leading
➢ The zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the voltage waveform.

2.3.2.3 Lagging
➢ The zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the voltage waveform.

2.4 Average Value

Question: Define average value of an ac quantity. Write the relation between average value and the
maximum value of an alternating quantity.

The average value of an alternating quantity is defined as that value which is obtained by averaging all
the instantaneous values over a period of half cycle.
2𝐼𝑚
Iav = i.e., 𝐈𝐚𝐯 = 0.637𝐈𝐦
𝜋

Similarly V𝐚𝐯 = 0.637V𝐦

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

2.5 RMS Value of Sinusoidal Current or Voltage

Question: Define RMS value of an ac quantity. Write the relation between r.m.s. value and the maximum
value of an alternating quantity.
The effective or Root Mean Squared (RMS) value of an alternating current is given by that steady current
(D.C.) which, when flowing through a given circuit for a given time, produces the same amount of heat as
produced by the alternating current , when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
𝑰𝒎
Irms = = 0.707 Im
√𝟐

Similarly Vrms = 0.707 Vm

2.6 Form Factor and Peak Factor in an A.C. Circuit

2.6.1 Form Factor
➢ The ratio of effective value (or RMS value) to average value of an alternating quantity (voltage or
current) is called form factor.
𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Form factor = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
0.707𝐼𝑚
For a sinusoidal Current, 𝐾𝑓 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏
0.637𝐼𝑚
0.707𝑉𝑚
For a sinusoidal Voltage, 𝐾𝑓 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏
0.637𝑉𝑚

Hence, the RMS value is 1.11 times its average value

2.6.2 Peak Factor / Amplitude Factor / Crest Factor

➢ It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the effective value (RMS value) of an alternating
quantity.
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Peak factor = 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝐼𝑚
For a sinusoidal current, 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝑚 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
√2

𝑉𝑚
For a sinusoidal voltage, 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑚 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
√2

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

2.7 Voltage and Current Relationships In R, L And C Circuits

Fig: Load Type, Circuit, waveform and vector diagram for R, L, C Circuits

2.7.1 A.C. Through Pure Resistance

Questions on this topic :
➢ Derive an expression for the instantaneous power in a pure resistor energized by sinusoidal
voltage (4 Marks)
➢ Obtain the behavior of voltage, current and power in a pure resistor connected to a single
phase A.C. supply. Draw the voltage, current and power waveforms (7 Marks)

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure resistance ‘R’ ohm connected across a voltage
v = Vm sin ωt.

Fig: Pure resistive circuit

➢ According to ohms law, we can find the equation for the current i as
𝑉
im= 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
= 𝑅

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

𝑉𝑚
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
𝑅

This is the equation giving instantaneous value of the current.

Comparing this with standard equation, i = Im sin(ωt + Ø)

and Ø=0
𝑽
maximum value of alternating current, i is im= while, as Ø=0, it indicates that it is in phase with the
𝑹

voltage applied.
➢ There is no phase difference between the two.
➢ The waveform of voltage and current (fig.a) and the corresponding phasor diagram (fig.b) is
shown below

Fig a: Waveforms Fig b: Phasor diagram

Power
The instantaneous power in a.c. circuits can be obtained by taking product of the instantaneous values of
current and voltage.
P= v*i
= Vmsin ωt * Im sin ωt
= Vm Im sin2ωt
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= − cos 2𝜔𝑡
2 2

From the above equation, it is clear that the instantaneous power consists of two components,
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
➢ Constant power component 2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
➢ Fluctuating component 2
cos 2𝜔𝑡 having frequency, double the frequency of applied voltage and

is equal to zero

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

➢ Average power consumption over one cycle is equal to the constant power component

𝐏𝐚𝐯 = 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬* 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 Watts

Fig: v, i & p for purely resistive circuit

2.7.2 A.C. Through Pure Inductance

➢ Question: Obtain expression for the current through the pure inductor, if the voltage across it
is V=Vm Sin ꞷt (6 Marks)
➢ Prove that in a purely Inductive circuit the current lags voltage by 900 (8 Marks)
➢ Establish relation between voltage and current in a.c. circuit containing pure inductance only.
Draw the phasor diagram (8 Marks – July 2023)
➢ A pure inductor is excited by sinusoidal varying A.C voltage. Show that the average power
consumed by inductor is zero (8 Marks – Jan 2023)

Fig: purely inductive circuit

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure inductance of L henries, connected across a voltage given
by the equation, v = Vm sin ωt.
The coil has pure inductance of L henry.
When alternating quantity i flows through inductance ‘L’, it sets up an alternating magnetic field around
the inductance. This changing flux links the coil and due to self inductance, emf gets induced in the coil.
This emf opposes the applied voltage.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering (BESCK204B)

𝑑𝑖
The self induced emf in the coil is given by, e= −𝐿 𝑑𝑡

At all instant, the applied voltage v is equal and opposite to the self induced emf
𝑑𝑖
e = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑉
Vm sin ꞷt = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 , di = 𝐿𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 dt
𝑉𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ 𝐿
sin 𝜔𝑡 dt
𝑉𝑚 − cos 𝜔𝑡
=∫ ( )
𝐿 𝜔
𝑚 𝑉 𝜋 𝜋
= ∫ − 𝜔𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 − 𝜔𝑡 ) as cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑉
𝑚 𝜋
= 𝜔𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − )
2
𝝅
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 − )
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎
Where 𝑰𝒎 = = and XL = ωL = 2 𝜋 f L Ω
𝝎𝑳 𝑿𝑳

The term, XL is called Inductive Reactance and is measured in ohms

𝜋
The above equation clearly shows that the current is purely sinusoidal and having phase angle of (− 2 )

radians i.e. -90°. This means that the current lags voltage applied by 90°.

Fig: Phasor Diagram Fig: Waveforms

Power
Question: Show that the average power consumed by pure inductor is zero (5 Marks)

The instantaneous power in a.c. circuits can be obtained by taking product of the instantaneous values
of current and voltage.
𝜋
P= v*i = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

= - VmIm sin(ωt) cos(ωt)

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P =- sin (2ꞷt)
2

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The average value of sine curve over a complete cycle is always zero
2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P = ∫0 sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 0
2

Fig: v, i, p waveforms for a pure inductor

It can be observed that
➢ when power curve is positive, energy gets stored in the magnetic field, this power is returned
back to the supply when the curve is negative.

The areas of positive loop and negative loop are exactly same and hence, average power consumption
is zero.

2.7.3 A.C. Through Pure Capacitance

Questions: Show that the current through purely capacitive circuit leads the applied voltage by 900 (6
Marks)

Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure capacitor of C-farads, connected across a voltage given by
the equation v = Vm sin ωt.
The current i charges the capacitor C. The instantaneous charge ‘q’ on the plates of the capacitor is given
by
q=Cv
Therefore q = C Vm sin ωt
Current is rate of flow of charge

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𝑑𝑞 𝑑
i= = (𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
i= 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 𝑑𝑡 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝑽𝒎 𝝅
𝒊= 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 )
𝝎𝑪
𝝅
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 )
𝑽𝒎 𝟏 𝟏
where 𝑰𝒎 = , 𝑿𝒄 = = 𝛀
𝑿𝒄 𝝎𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

The term Xc is called capacitive reactance and measured in ohms.

The above current equation clearly shows that the current is purely sinusoidal and having phase angle of
𝜋
(+ 2 ) radians i.e. +90°.

This means current leads voltage applied by 90°.

Fig: Waveforms and Phasor diagram

Power
Question: Show that the average power consumed by pure capacitor is zero. (6 Marks)
The instantaneous power in a.c. circuits can be obtained by taking product of the instantaneous values
of current and voltage.
P= v*i =
= VmIm sin(ωt) cos(ωt)
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟐𝝎𝒕)
𝟐

The average value of sine curve over a complete cycle is always zero
2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P = ∫0 2
sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑑(𝜔𝑡) = 0

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Fig: v, i, p waveforms for a pure capacitive circuit

➢ It can observed from the figure that when power curve is positive, an electrostatic energy gets
stored in the capacitor during its charging while the negative power curve the energy stored is returned
back to the supply during its discharging.
➢ The areas of positive and negative loops are exactly the same and hence,
average power consumption is zero.

2.7.4 A.C. Through Series R-L Circuit

Questions: Show that current lags behind the voltage in series R-L circuit. (6 Marks)
Consider a circuit consisting of pure resistance R ohms connected in series with a pure inductance of L
henries. The series combination is connected across a.c. supply given by v = Vm sin ωt.

Circuit draws a current I then there are two voltage drops,

a) Drop across pure resistance, VR = I R

b) Drop across pure inductance, VL = I XL where XL = 2 π f L

I = r.m.s. value of current drawn

VR & VL are r.m.s. values of voltage drops
The voltage VR is in phase with current i and the voltage VL leads the current by 90⁰.

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From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or in other words
the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.
Therefore V=VR + VL
V= IR + IXL

Phasor Diagram Voltage triangle

From the triangle OAB
V= √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 )2

= √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2

= I √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2
V=IZ
Where Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2
The impedance Z is measured in ohms.
𝑉 𝑋𝐿 𝑅
Tan Ø = 𝑉 𝐿 = , Cos Ø = 𝑍
𝑅 𝑅

2.7.4.1 Instantaneous Power

The instantaneous power in an RL series circuit can be derived as follows
P= v*i
=𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ∅)
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝝎𝒕 − ∅)
𝟐 𝟐

Constant power Fluctuating power

2.7.4.2 Average Power

Question: Derive the equation for the power consumed by R-L series circuit. Also draw the waveforms
of voltage current and power. (7 Marks – Jan 2024)

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From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows
𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = ∫𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝝎𝒕 − ∅)𝒅𝝎𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

Now the second term is cosine term whose average value over a cycle is zero.
Hence average power consumed is
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅
√𝟐 √𝟐

P = Vrms Irms cos ∅

The voltage, current and power waveforms of a R-L series circuit is as shown in the figure.

Fig: v, I & p waveform for an R-L series circuit

➢ When the power is positive, the power flows from the source to the load and when the power
in negative, the power flows from the load to the source.
➢ The positive power is not equal to the negative power and hence the average power in the
circuit is not equal to zero.

From the above phasor diagram,

P = 𝑽𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝑅
CosФ = 𝑍
𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑍 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ Cos Ф is called Power Factor
𝑍
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
Hence the power in an RL series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The inductance does not
consume any power.

2.7.5 Impedance
Impedance is defined as the opposition of a circuit to the flow of alternating current.
It is denoted by Z and its unit is ohms.
For the R-L series circuit, it can be observed from the phasor diagram that the current lags behind the
applied voltage by an angle Ø.

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If all the sides of the voltage triangle are divided by current, we get a triangle called impedance triangle.

From the impedance triangle, R= Z cosφ and XL= Z sinφ In rectangular form the impedance is denoted
as Z= R+jXL While in the polar form, it is denoted as Z= |Z|∟φ
𝑿𝑳
Where |Z| = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝑳 and 𝝋 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝑹

2.7.6 A.C. Through Series R-C Circuit

Question: For a.c. circuit consisting R and C, draw the phasor diagrams and show that the current
leads the voltage. (4 Marks)
Consider a circuit consisting of pure resistance R-ohms and connected in series with a pure
capacitor of C-farads as shown in the Fig. The series combination is connected across ac. given by
v = Vmsin ꞷt

Circuit draws a current I, then there are two voltage drops,

a) Drop across pure resistance, 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅
1
b) Drop across pure inductance, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼𝑋𝑐 where 𝑋𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

I = r.m.s. value of current drawn & VR, VC = r.m.s. values of voltage drops
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law can be applied to get,
V= VR + Vc
V= IR + IXc
Let us draw the phasor diagram. Current I is taken as reference as it is common to both the elements.

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Vector Diagram Voltage triangle

From the voltage triangle,
V= √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐶 )2

= √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2

= I √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2
V=IZ
Where Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2
The impedance Z is measured in ohms.
Impedance
Similar to R-L series circuit, in this case also, the impedance is nothing but the opposition to the flow of
alternating current, It is measured in ohms given by Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2 where
1
𝑋𝑐 =2𝜋𝑓𝐶 Ω called capacitive reactance.

2.7.6.1 Instantaneous Power

The instantaneous power in an RC series circuit can be derived as follows
P= v*i
=𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝝎𝒕 + ∅)
𝟐 𝟐

2.7.6.2 Average Power Consumed

Question: Develop an equation for the power consumed by R-C series circuit. Draw the waveform of
voltage, current and power. (6 Marks - Jan 2023)
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows
𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P = ∫𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐𝝎𝒕 + ∅)𝒅𝝎𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

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Now the second term is cosine term whose average value over a cycle is zero. Hence average power
consumed is
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅
𝟐
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
P= 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅
√𝟐 √𝟐

P = 𝑽𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅

Fig: v, i & p waveforms for an R-C series circuit

2.7.7 A.C. Through Series R-L-C Circuit

Question: Derive an expression for impedance, phase angle and power for series R-L-C circuit
energized by sinusoidal voltage (8 Marks)

Consider a circuit consisting of resistance R ohms pure Inductance L henries and capacitance C farads
connected in series with each other across a.c. supply. The circuit s shown below.

The a.c. supply is given by, v = Vm sin ωt

The circuit draws a current I. Due to current I, there are different voltage drops across R, L and C which
is given by.
➢ Drop across resistance R is VR = IR (VR is in phase with current I)
➢ Drop across inductance L is VL = IXL (VL leads current I by 900)
➢ Drop across capacitance C us Vc = IXc (VC lags current I by 900)

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2.7.7.1 Case 1 When XL > Xc

➢ VL > VC
➢ Hence, the resultant of VL and VC will be directed towards VL.
➢ Current I will lag the resultant voltage i.e., (VL - VC)
➢ The circuit will be inductive in nature.

From the voltage triangle,

V= √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐 )2

= √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝑐 )2

= I √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2
V=IZ
Where Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
The impedance Z is measured in ohms.

2.7.7.2 Case 2. When 𝐗𝐋 < 𝐗𝐂

➢ VL is less than VC.
➢ The resultant of VL and VC will be directed towards VC.
➢ Current I will lead the resultant voltage (VC − VL).
➢ The circuit will be capacitive in nature.
➢ Where Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

Fig: Phasor diagram and voltage triangle for 𝐗𝐋 < 𝐗𝐂

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2.7.7.3 Case 3. When 𝐗𝐋 = 𝐗𝐂 (Resonance)

➢ 𝐕𝐋 = 𝐕𝐂
➢ VL and VC will cancel each other and their resultant is zero.
➢ 𝐕𝐑 = V
➢ Overall circuit is purely resistive in nature

Fig: Phasor diagram when 𝐗𝐋 = 𝐗𝐂

➢ From the phasor diagram V= 𝐕𝐑 = IR= IZ where Z=R The
➢ For any condition, in general power can be expressed as P = VI cosφ
➢ In both cases R= Z cosφ and X= Z sinφ

2.8 Electrical Powers

Question: Define i) Real Power ii) Reactive Power iii) Apparent Power iv) Power Factor (6 Marks –
Jan 2023)

2.8.1 Active or Real or True Power (P)

It is defined as the product of the applied voltage and the active component of the current.
It is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).

2.8.2 Reactive Power (Q)

It is defined as product of the applied voltage and the reactive component of the current.
It is represented by ‘Q’ and it is measured in volt-amp reactive (VAR) or kilovolt-amp reactive
(kVAR).

2.8.3 Apparent Power (S)

It is defined as the product of r.m.s. value of voltage (V) and current (I). It is denoted by S.

It is measured in unit volt-amp (VA) or kilo volt-amp (kVA).

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2.8.4 Power Factor

The Power factor of a circuit can be defined in the following three ways.
i) 𝑝. 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 , it is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and the current
𝑅
ii) 𝑝. 𝑓 = 𝑍 , It is the ratio of resistance to impedance of a circuit
𝑃 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
iii) 𝑝. 𝑓 = = , It is the ratio of real power to the apparent power.
𝑉𝐼 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

The maximum value of p.f is unity i.e., 1.

2.9 Formulae Summary

➢ Equation of A.C voltage is v = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 ( ꞷ 𝑡 )
➢ Equation of A.C current is i = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 ( ꞷ 𝑡 )
1
➢ Frequency 𝑓 = 𝑇 𝐻𝑧

2𝐼𝑚
➢ Average Value Iav = or 𝐈𝐚𝐯 = 0.637𝐈𝐦
𝜋

𝐼𝑚
➢ RMS Value Irms = or Irms = 0.707 Im
√2

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
➢ Form Factor FF=𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 1.11
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
➢ Peak Factor PF= = 1.414
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

➢ Average power consumed in a resistor is Pav =Vrms * Irms Watts

➢ Inductive Reactance XL = ωL = 2 𝜋 f L Ω
1 1
➢ Capacitive Reactance XC = 𝜔𝐶 = 2 𝜋 𝑓 𝐶 Ω

➢ Average power in a pure inductor and pure capacitor is zero

➢ Impedance Z for R-L Circuit Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2

➢ Impedance Z for R-C Circuit Z= √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 )2

➢ Average power in a R-L, R-C and RLC Circuit P = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅
𝑅
➢ Power Factor = Cos Ø = 𝑍
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶
➢ Tan Ø = for Inductive circuit and Tan Ø = for capacitive circuit
𝑅 𝑅

➢ R= Z cos Ø and XL = Z sin Ø

➢ Active Power P = VI cos Ø in Watts
➢ Reactive Power Q = VI sin Ø in VAR
➢ Apparent Power S = VI in VA
Refer VTU Formula Handbook Page 4-9

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STEPS TO CONVERT COMPLEX NUMBERS IN RECTANGULAR FORM TO POLAR

FORM OR VICE VERSA
conversion of a complex number from rectangular form (a + bi) to polar form (r ∠ θ) on a casio
scientific calculator
1. Turn on the calculator.
- Ensure the calculator is in the correct mode for complex number calculations, usually `CMPLX`
mode. You can switch modes by pressing the `MODE` button and selecting `CMPLX`.
2. Enter the complex number.
- Input the real part \( a \).
- Press the `+` or `-` key if the imaginary part \( b \) is positive or negative.
- Press the `i` key (often `SHIFT` + a key with `i` above it) to indicate the imaginary part.
- Input the imaginary part \( b \).
3. Convert to polar form.
- Press `SHIFT` and then the `Pol(` key (usually above the `ENG`or 4 key).
- The calculator will prompt you to enter the complex number in the format `Pol(a, b)`.
- Press `=` to perform the conversion.
- The calculator will display the polar coordinates (r, θ), where:
- \( r \) is the magnitude of the complex number.
- \( θ \) is the argument (angle) of the complex number in degrees or radians depending on your
calculator's settings.
To toggle between magnitude and angle, press ‘SHIFT’ and then ‘=’

To convert polar form (r ∠ θ) to rectangular form (a + bi), on casio scientific calculator,

1. Enter the polar coordinates.
- Input the magnitude \( r \).
- Press the ` ∠ ` (above ‘ENG’ key).
- Input the angle \( θ \). Ensure your calculator is set to the correct angle unit (DEG for degrees or
RAD for radians).
- Close the parenthesis if needed and press `=`.

The calculator will display the rectangular coordinates (a, bi).

To toggle between Real and imaginary parts, press ‘SHIFT’ and then ‘=’

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2.10 PROBLEMS
1. The equation for an AC voltage is given by V=0.04 Sin (2000t+600). Determine the frequency, time
period , instantaneous voltage when t=160µs.

Given:
V= V=0.04 Sin (2000t+600)
Comparing with the general equation v=𝑉𝑚 𝑠 𝑖 𝑛 ( ꞷ 𝑡 + Ф)
𝜔 2000
i) Angular frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 therefore 𝑓 = 2𝜋 = = 318.30 Hz
2𝜋
1 1
𝑖𝑖) 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑇 = 𝑓 =318.30 = 3.14ms

iii) For V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) put t = 160μs

V = 0.04Sin (2000(160*10-6) +60°) = 0.034V

2. The current in a circuit is (8-j10)A, when the applied voltage is (50+j25)V. Determine
i) The magnitude of the current
ii)Impedance
iii)Circuit elements
iv)Power factor
v)Power (6 Marks - Jan 2023)

Given:
I= (8-j10)A = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟎𝟔 ∠ − 𝟓𝟏. 𝟑𝟒𝑨
V=(50+j25)V = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟗𝟎 ∠𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟔𝑽

i) Magnitude of current
I=(8-j10) = 12.806 ∠ − 51.34𝐴
Magnitude = 12.806A
ii) Impedance Z
𝑉 (50 + 𝑗25)
𝑍= =
𝐼 (8 − 𝑖10)
Z = (0.914+j4.26)Ω

iii) The circuit element

Z = (R+jXL) = (0.914+j4.26)Ω
Therefore R=0.914 Ω, XL=4.26 Ω

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XL=2ᴨfL,
𝑋𝐿 4.26
𝐿= =
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋. 50
L=13.56mH

iv) Power factor

𝑅 0.914
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = =
𝑍 √0.9142 + 4.262
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟗 lag
v) Power P = VI 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
= 55.9 x 12.806 x 0.209
= 149.61 Watts
3. A circuit having a resistance of 12Ω, inductance of 0.15H and a capacitance of 100µF in series is
connected across a 100V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate i) Impedance ii) Current iii) Power factor iv) Phase
difference between current and voltage v)Power (6 Marks – Jan 2023)

Given: R=12Ω, L=0.15H, C=100µF

XL=2ᴨfL = 2ᴨ x 50 x 0.15 = 47.12Ω
𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝒄 = =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 𝟐𝝅 ∗ 𝟓𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
= 31.83 Ω
XL>XC therefore it is an inductive circuit
i) Z=R+j(XL-XC)
= 12+j(47.12 – 31.83)
= (12+j15.29) Ω
𝑉 100
ii) Current 𝐼 = 𝑍 = (12+𝑗15.29)
= 𝟓. 𝟏𝟒𝟒∠ − 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝑨

iii) Power Factor

𝑅 12
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = =
𝑍 √122 + 15.292
=0.617 lag
iv) Phase difference between the current & supply voltage
𝜑 = cos−1 (0.617) = 51.90𝑂
v) Power
P = VI 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋

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=100 x 5.144 x 0.617

= 317.38 Watts

4. An inductive coil takes a current of 10A from a supply voltage of 100V, 50Hz and lags the voltage
by 300. Calculate i) Parameters of the circuit ii) Power factor iii) Active, reactive and apparent power.
(6 Marks – Model Paper 2022)
Given:
I = 10∠ − 30𝐴, V=100V, f=50Hz
i) Parameters of the circuit
𝑉 100
𝑍= = = (8.66 + 𝑗5)Ω
𝐼 (10∠ − 30)
Therefore R = 8.66Ω
XL=2ᴨfL,
𝑋𝐿 5
𝐿= =
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋. 50
L=15.91mH
ii) Power factor
𝑅 8.66
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = =
𝑍 √8.662 + 52
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 lag

iii) Active Power P = VI 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋

= 100 x 10 x 0.866
= 866 Watts
Reactive Power Q = VI 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋
= 100 x 10 x 0.5
= 500VAR
Apparent Power S = VI = 100 x 10 = 1000VA
5. A circuit consists of a resistance of 20Ω, an inductance of 0.05H, connected in series. A single phase
supply of 230V, 50Hz is applied across the circuit. Find i) Impedance ii) Current iii)Power factor iv)
Power consumed by the circuit v) Voltage drop across R and L vi)Draw the vector diagram
Given:
R = 20Ω, L = 0.05H, V=230V, f=50Hz
i) Impedance, Z

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XL=2ᴨfL
= 2ᴨ x 50 x 0.05
= 15.70Ω
Z = (R+jXL) = (20+j15.70)Ω
Z = (20+j15.70)Ω
𝑉 230
ii) Current 𝐼 = 𝑍 = = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟒𝟓∠ − 𝟑𝟖. 𝟏𝟑𝑨
(20+𝑗15.70)

iii) Power Factor

𝑅 20
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = =
𝑍 √202 + 15.702
=0.786 lag
iv) Power consumed
P = VI 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
=230 x 9.045 x 0.786
= 1.636 Kilo Watts
v) Voltage drop across R, VR = IR
=9.045∠ − 38.13 * 20
=𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟗∠ − 𝟑𝟖. 𝟏𝟑 Volts
Voltage drop across L, VL= IXL
=9.045∠ − 38.13 * 15.70
=𝟏𝟒𝟐. 𝟎∠ − 𝟑𝟖. 𝟏𝟑 Volts
vi) Vector Diagram

VL=IZ 230V
VL=142
V
Ф=38.130
I
VR=180.9V
6. A series R-L circuit takes 384 watts at a power factor of 0.8 from a 120V, 60Hz Supply. What are
the values of R & L? (6 Marks July 2023)
Given:
P= 384 Watts, CosФ = 0.8, V=120V, f=60Hz
P=VI cosФ
𝑃 384
𝐼 = = = 𝟒𝑨
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 120 ∗ 0.8

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P=I2R
𝑷 𝟑𝟖𝟒
𝑹= = 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝛀
𝑰𝟐 𝟒

𝑉 120
Also, 𝑍 = = = 𝟑𝟎𝛀
𝐼 4

𝑍 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2

𝑋𝐿 = √𝑍 2 − 𝑅 2

𝑋𝐿 = √302 − 242
𝑋𝐿 = 18Ω
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑋𝐿 18
𝐿= =
2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 ∗ 60
L = 47.74mH

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THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

2.11 Generation of Three Phase Power:

Question: Explain the generation of three phase a.c and list the advantages (6 Marks – July 2023)

➢ Three phase power is generated using alternator.

➢ Alternator contains stator (stationary part) and rotor (rotating part).

➢ The stator is cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner periphery as shown in the figure
below.

➢ The conductors are placed in the slots. They are connected either in star or delta connection.

➢ Rotor is a magnet with two poles ‘North (N) & South (S)’.

Generation of Three Phase EMF

➢ Stator conductors aa' , bb' and cc' are mutually displaced by 1200.

➢ As the rotor rotates, the stator conductor cuts the flux and hence emf is induced in all 3
conductors.

Fig above shows the stator with rotor and the phasor diagram of the generated emf.

𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟏 (𝒆𝑨 ) = 𝑬𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕

Phase 2 (𝒆𝑩 ) = 𝑬𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 - 𝟏𝟐𝟎)
Phase 3 (𝒆𝑪 ) = 𝑬𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 - 𝟐𝟒𝟎)

Fig: 3 phase A.C waveforms

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2.12 Advantages of Three-Phase Systems:

Question: What are the advantages of a three-phase system over a single phase system? (6 Marks –
Jan 2024), (6 Marks - Make up exam Jan 2023)

1. Three phase transmission lines require much less conductor material.

2. Three phase machine gives higher output than a single phase machine.

3. Three phase motor develops uniform torque whereas single phase motor develops pulsating
torque.

4. Three phase induction motors are self starting.

5. Three phase system can be used to supply domestic & industrial power.

6. Voltage regulation is better in three phase system compared to single phase sysytem.

7. Three phase system is more efficient & less expensive compared to single phase system.

2.13 Limitations of Three Phase AC

1. The initial cost can be higher than single-phase generators.
2. They can be more challenging to maintain and repair, as they have more parts that can break down.
3. 3-phase generators can produce more noise.

2.14 Relation Between Line & Phase Values of Balanced Star Connections:
Question: With relevant diagrams, explain the concept of line values of voltage and current, phase
values of voltage and current in a three phase star and delta connections. (6 Marks – Jan 2023)

Let IR , IY , IB → Line Currents

VRY, VYB, VBR → Line voltages
VR, VY, VB → Phase Voltages
Phase voltage is the voltage between line & neutral
Line voltage is the voltage between any two lines

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Fig: Star connected system

Voltage Relation VL = √𝟑𝑽Ph

Current Relation IL = IPh
𝑉𝑃ℎ
Impedance per phase 𝑍𝑝ℎ = Ω
𝐼𝑃ℎ

2.15 Relation Between Line & Phase Values of Balanced Delta Connections:
Let IR, IY, IB → Line currents
IRY, IYB, IBR → Phase Currents

Fig: Delta connected system

Voltage Relation VL = VPh
Current Relation IL = √𝟑 IPh
𝑉𝑃ℎ
Impedance per phase 𝑍𝑝ℎ = Ω
𝐼𝑃ℎ

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2.16 Formulae Summary

1. For a Star Connected system
Voltage Relation VL = √3𝑉 Ph
Current Relation IL = IPh
2. For a Delta Connected system
Voltage Relation VL = VPh
Current Relation IL = √3 IPh
𝑉𝑃ℎ
3. Impedance per phase 𝑍𝑝ℎ = Ω
𝐼𝑃ℎ

4. Three phase power in terms of phase values P = 3 * VPh IPh cosφ

5. Three phase power in terms of line values P = √3 * VL IL cosφ

Refer VTU Formula Handbook Page 10-11

PROBLEMS:
1. A balanced delta connected load has per phase impedance of (8+j6)ohm and line voltage is 400V at
the load terminals. Find the current, p.f and power delivered to the load (6 Marks – July 2023)
Given:
Zph = 8 + j6Ω
VL = 400V
For a delta connected system, VL = VPh
Therefore VPh = 400V
𝑽 𝟒𝟎𝟎∠𝟎
IPh = 𝒁𝑷𝒉 = = 𝟒𝟎∠−𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝒐 A
𝑷𝒉 (𝟖+𝒋𝟔)

𝑰𝑳 = √𝟑 ∗ 𝑰𝑷𝒉 = √𝟑 ∗ 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟐𝟖 𝑨
p.f = cos Ф = cos (-36.87)
= 0.8 lag
Power P = 3 * VPh IPh cosφ
= 3 * 400 * 40 * 0.8
= 38.4KW

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Table of contents

Module 3: DC Machines

Chapter No. Topics Page No

DC GENERATORS 3-1 to 3-10
3.1 DC generator construction 3-1
3.2 EMF equation for DC generator 3-3
3.2.1 Problems on EMF equation 3-4
3.3 Types of DC generators 3-5
3.3.1 Problems on DC generator 3-10
DC MOTORS 3-11 to 3-21
3.4 DC motor principle 3-11
3.5 Back EMF in a DC motor 3-12
3.6 Torque equation of a DC motor 3-13
3.7 Different types of DC motor 3-14
3.8 Characteristics of DC shunt motor 3-16
3.9 List of the formulae 3-19
3.9.1 Problems on DC motor 3-19
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MODULE 3
DC MACHINES
3.1 DC Generator Construction
Question: With a neat diagram explain the construction D.C. generator (7M Jan 24, 8M July 23)
➢ It is based on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f .
➢ Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in the
conductor according to the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction.
➢ This e.m.f. causes a current to flow in the circuit, if the conductor circuit is closed .
➢ The induced emf direction is given with respect to Flemings Right hand rule
Construction of DC Machine

Yoke:
➢ It is made of cast iron or silicon steel
➢ It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating materials get
protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases like SO2,
acidic fumes etc.
➢ It provides mechanical support to the poles,
Poles:
➢ It is made of cast iron or cast steel laminations which are stamped together. Each pole is divided
into two parts a) pole core and b) pole shoe
➢ Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
➢ Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary to
produce larger induced emf. To achieve this, pole shoe has given a particular shape

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Field winding:
➢ It is made of conducting material like copper or Aluminum. The field winding is wound on the
pole core with a definite direction.
➢ It carries current due to which the pole core behaves as an electromagnet and produces necessary
flux.
Armature:
➢ It is further divided into two parts namely,
➢ Armature core
➢ Armature winding
➢ Armature core is cylindrical in shape made up of iron and mounted on the shaft. It is provided
with of slots on its outer periphery to place the conductor and the air ducts to permit the air
flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
➢ In order to collect the emf generated in each conductor they are connected in a certain pattern
called armature winding.
Commutator:
➢ The emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This needs rectifications in case of
D.C. generator this conversion is possible by device called commutator.
Brushes:
➢ Brushes collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external
circuit.

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3.2 EMF Equation of DC Generator

Question: Derive an Emf equation for DC generator with usual notations (6M Jul 23,7M jan24)

Let, Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb)

P = Number of poles in the DC generator.
N = Speed of the armature conductor in rpm.

Consider one revolution of the conductor

Total flux produced by all the poles = Ø × P
Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced EMF of the conductor is equal to rate of
change of flux.

Therefore,
Induced EMF of one conductor is

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a manner that
all parallel paths are always in series.
Here, Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths Then,
Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
Therefore, Induced EMF of DC generator
E = EMF of one conductor × number of conductors connected in series.
Induced Emf of DC generator is

𝝋𝒁𝑵𝑷
𝑬= volts
𝟔𝟎𝑨
where
A- No of parallel paths, for wave winding A=2 and for lap winding A=P

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3.2.1 Problems on EMF Equation

1. A 4 pole, 1500 rpm DC generator has a lap wound armature having 24 slots with 10 conductors per
slot. If the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, calculate EMF generated in the armature. What would be the
generated EMF if the winding is wave connected? (7M Jan24)
Solution:
Given: P = 4, N = 1500rpm, Lap i. e. A = P = 4, Ø = 0.04 Wb
Z = Slots × Conductors per Slot = 24 X 10 = 240
𝑃𝑁𝑍
Eg=∅ 60𝐴 = 0.04 × 4 × 1500 × 240/60 × 4

=240V
If winding is wave connected, A = 2
𝑃𝑁𝑍
Eg=∅ 60𝐴 = 0.04 × 4 × 1500 × 240/60 × 2

=480V

2. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24 conductors. The flux
per pole is 0.01 weber. At what speed must the armature rotate to give an induced EMF of 220 V?
What will be the voltage developed if the winding is lap connected and the armature rotates at the
same speed?
Solution:
Given: P = 4, wave connected hence A = 2, 51 slots, 24 conductors per slot, Ø =0.01 Wb
, Eg = 220V
Eg=∅PNZ/60A Where Z = 51 X 24 = 1224
220=0.01 × 4 × 𝑁 × 1244/60 × 2
N=539.215rpm….for speed 220V
For lap wound, A = P = 4 and N = 539.2156 r.p.m
Eg=∅PNZ/60A =0.01 × 4 × 539.216 × 1244/60 × 4=110V

3. A 8 pole DC generator has 500 armature conductors and useful flux per pole of
0.065 wb. What will be EMF generated if the winding is lap connected and runs at 1000 rpm? What
must be the speed at which it is to be driven to produce the same EMF if the winding is Wave
connected? (6M Mod-1)

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Solution:

Given: P = 8 Z= 500 conductors Ø = 0. 065 𝑊𝑏 N = 1000rpm

i) When it is lap connected A=P =8 and Eg =?

𝑃𝑁𝑍
Eg=∅ = 0.065 × 8 × 𝑁 × 500/60 × 2 = 541.66𝑉
60𝐴

When Eg = 541.667V, the winding is wave connected i,e A=2 N=?

N=541.667 × 60 × 2/0.065 × 8 × 500 = 250𝑟𝑝𝑚

3.3 Types Of DC Generators

Question: Explain the different types of DC Generators
➢ Supplying current to the field winding is called excitation and the way of supplying the exciting
current is called method of excitation.
➢ Depending on the method of excitation used, the D.C. Generators are classified as,

i) Separately Excited Generator

➢ When field winding is supplied from external, separate d.c. supply i.e. excitation of field
winding is separate then the generator is called separately excited generator.
The schematic representation is shown in fig below

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➢ In the terminology of d.c. machines the various currents are denoted as

Ia = Armature Current IL = Load Current If = field Current
➢ The field winding is excited separately, so the field current depends on supply voltage and
resistance of the field winding.
➢ For armature side, it is supplying a load, demanding a load current of IL at a voltage of Vt
which is called terminal voltage.
Now Ia = IL
➢ So the voltage equation for separately excited generator can be written as,
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 + armature reaction drop
Where E=∅ZNP/60A generated e.m.f
ii) Self-Excited Generator
➢ When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself, then it is said to be
self-excited generator.
➢ Based on the field winding connected to the armature to derive its excitation, this is further
divided into three types
❖ Shunt generator
❖ Series generator
❖ Compound generator
Shunt generator
➢ When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the combination across
the load then the generator is called shunt generator.

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𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
➢ Now the voltage across the load is 𝐕𝐭 ,

➢ While induced e.m.f E still requires to supply voltage drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 and brush contact drop
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
➢ The power developed by armature is given by the product of induced e.m.f E and armature current 𝐈𝐚
➢ While the power available to the load is 𝐕𝐭𝐈𝐋 and Power developed in armature = E𝐈𝐚 W

Series Generator
➢ When the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding while supplying the
load then the generator is called series generator.

➢ As all armature, field and load are in series they carry the same current
𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋

➢ Now in addition to drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 , induced emf has to supply voltage drop across series field
winding too. This is 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 . so voltage equation can be written as
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡

Compound Generator
➢ In this type, the part of the field winding is connected in parallel with armature and part
in series with armature.
➢ Depending on the connection of shunt and series field winding, compound generators are
further classified as
❖ Long shunt compound generators
❖ Short shunt compound generators

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Long shunt compound generators

In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the entire series combination of of armature
and series field winding.

➢ Ia=IL+ISH

Voltage across the shunt field winding Vt is

➢ Voltage equation is
E= +

Short Shunt Compound Generator

In this type, shunt field winding is connected only across the armature, excluding series field
winding

➢ the drop across shunt field winding is drop across the armature only and not the total
so the drop across the shunt field winding is E-

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➢ now the voltage equation is E =Vt+IaRa+IseRse+Vbrush

since ISE=IL
Hence E =Vt+IaRa+ILRse+Vbrush

➢ Neglecting we can write E =

i.e. E -IaRa=

Cumulative and Differential Compound Generator

➢ The two windings shunt and series field are wound on the same pole.
➢ If the two fluxes help each other the generator is called cumulative compound generator.
➢ If the two windings are wound in such a direction that the fluxes produced by them oppose
each other than the generator is called differential compound generator.

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3.3.1 Problems on DC Generator

1. The emf generated in the armature of a shunt generator is 625 volts, delivering its full load
current of 400 A to the external circuit. The field current is 6 amps and the armature
resistance is 0.06Ω. What is the terminal voltage?

Solution:

Given: Eg=625 V, IL= 400 A, Ish = 6A, and 𝑅𝑎 = 0.06Ω Vt=?

Wkt Ia = IL + Ish = 400+6 = 406 A

Terminal Voltage Vt = Eg – IaRa (neglecting brush voltage drop)

= 625 - (406X0.06)

Vt = 600.64V

2. A 30 kW, 300V, DC shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.05 ohm and
100ohm respectively. Calculate the total power developed by armature when delivers full
output power.

Solution: PL = 30kW, Vt = 300 V, 𝑅𝑎 = 0.05Ω, 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 100Ω Pa= ?

Wkt the power developed in the armature Pa = Eg x Ia

Therefore PL= VtxIL, IL=100A

𝑉 300
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = =3
𝑅𝑠ℎ 100

Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 3 = 103A

Eg = Vt + Ia Ra = 300 + 103 X 0.05 = 305.15V

Power developed by armature = EgIa = 305.15 X 103 = 31.4304kW

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3.4 DC Motor Principle

Question: Explain the Working Principle of a DC motor with suitable diagrams (8M July 23)
➢ When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical
force’.
➢ In a d.c.motor, field winding produces magnetic field while armature conductors carry current
and experiences a force.
➢ Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in fig

➢ Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular
direction.
Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in fig.
➢ The current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it; The direction of this
flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule.

➢ Now there are two fluxes present in a motor, The flux produced by field winding called main
flux the flux produced by the rotor conductors
➢ The flux in the rotor conductor interacts with main flux of the stator, due to this overall armature
experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts rotating.
➢ The magnitude of force experienced by conductor in a motor is given by
F = B l I Newtons
B= flux density due to the flux produced by field winding
l=active length of the conductor

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I= magnitude of current passing through the conductor

The direction of such force i.e. direction of rotation of motor can be determined by Flemings left hand
rule

3.5 Back EMF in a DC Motor

Question: What is Back emf in a DC motor? What is its Significance? (6M July 23)

➢ When the Armature of D C motor starts rotating and armature conductor cuts the magnetic
flux, hence an EMF is induced in the Conductor called Back EMF.

➢ The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage ‘V’(Lenz’s law) , hence it is
called as back EMF. It is given by E=∅ZNP/60A
The Voltage equation of DC motor is V = Eb + IaRa
The armature current is Ia=V-Eb/Ra

Significance of Back EMF

The basic Principle of the Back EMF is that 𝑬𝒃 ∝ 𝑵
➢ When the load is applied to the motor, the motor tries to slow down. So, speed of the motor reduces
due to which the back EMF decreases. So the net Voltage (𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏) increases and motor draws more
armature current.
➢ When the load on the motor decreases, the speed of the motor increases due to which the back EMF
increases. So the net Voltage (𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏) decreases and motor draws less armature current.
➢ Therefore, due to the presence of back emf. The d.c. motor acts as a self-regulating machine.

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➢ 3.6 Torque Equation Of A Dc Motor

Question: Derive Torque equation of a DC Motor. (6M Jan 24)

➢ The turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque.

➢ Consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons

The wheel is rotating at a speed of N rpm then its angular speed is

rad/sec

so work done in one revolution is

W= F x distance travelled in one revolution = F x 2 π R

2𝜋𝑅
60
P = Power developed = work done / time =𝐹 ×
𝑁

= (𝐹 × 𝑅) × 2𝜋𝑁/60
∴ P = T * ω watts
Where T =Torque in Nm a n d ω= angular speed in rad/sec
Let ‘Ta’is torque developed in the armature of the motor. It is also called as armature torque.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is ‘EbIa’
Power in armature = armature torque *ω
➢ Let T be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature
torque.
➢ The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is .
➢ So if the speed of the motor is N rpm, then
Power in armature = Armature torque x ω

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𝑬𝒃 = ∅𝑷𝑵𝒁/𝟔𝟎𝑨

𝑷𝑵𝒁 𝟐𝝅𝑵
∅ × 𝑰𝒂 = 𝑻𝒂 ×
𝟔𝟎𝑨 𝟔𝟎
Therefore

3.7 Different Types of DC Motor

Question: What are the different types of DC Motor.

Motors are classified into 3 types:

a) DC Shunt motor

b) DC Series motor.

c) DC Compound motor.
a) DC Shunt motor:
➢ In shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature.
The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current.

In the above circuit

V=Eb+IaRa
I=Ia+Ish, Ish=V/Rsh &
V=Eb+IaRa

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b) DC Series motor
➢ In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
➢ Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current.

In above circuit
IL= Ia = Ise ,
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)
V= Eb + IaRa+ IseRse

c) DC Compound Motor
➢ Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the armature
and the other in series with it.
➢ There are two types of compound motor connections:
1) Short-shunt connection Compound Motor
When the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding it is
called short-shunt connection.

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2.Long shunt connection Compound Motor:

when the shunt winding is so connected that in parallel with the series combination of armature and
series field it is called long-shunt

3.8 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor

Question: Explain the following Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:

The three important characteristic curves are

1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)
2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)

DC Shunt Motor Characteristics:

In DC shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with the source voltage, so the field
current Ish and the flux are constant in a shunt motor.

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i) Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):

➢ We know that in a DC Motor Ta α Φ Ia by torque equation
➢ The flux Φ is constant in shunt motor, therefore Ta α Ia
➢ The torque increases linearly with the armature current

(ii) Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia):

➢ N∝ 𝑬𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 Eb=V-IaRa. As the flux is constant.
➢ When load increases, the armature current increases hence the drop IaRa increases
therefore V-IaRa decreases hence speed decreases.

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(iii) Speed Vs Torque Characteristic (N/Ta):

The speed reduces when the load torque increases.

➢ The armature torque vs. armature current curve up to magnetic saturation is a

parabola, which is shown in the characteristic curve OA.
➢ On the other hand, once the magnetic saturation is reached, the Ta is directly
proportional to the Ia.

(iv) Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristic (N/Ia):

In Series Motor Speed -- N α (Eb/Φ)
N α1/ Ia φ
N α 1/ Ia2

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3.9 List of Formulae

1) Eb=∅ZNP/60A
𝐼𝑎𝑍
2) Armature torque Ta T a =1/2𝜋 × ∅ 𝐴

3) Shaft torque Tsh = P / ω

4) The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm= EbIa
5) DC Shunt motor:
IL=Ia+Ish and Ish=V/Rsh
∴V= Eb + IaRa
6) DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise , V=Eb+Ia(Ra+Rse)

3.9.1 Problems on DC Motor

1. A 4 pole DC motor takes 50A armature current. The armature has lap connected winding with
480 conductors. The flux per pole is 20mwb. Calculate the gross torque developed in the
armature.

Solution: Given P=4 lap connected A = P = 4

Ia = 40A Z = 480 φ = 20 x 10-3 wb Ta =?

𝑍
Ta=1/2𝜋 × ∅ × 𝐼𝑎 × 𝑃 × 𝐴

480
=1/2𝜋 × 20 ×10-3× 40 × 4 × 4

Ta=76.39N-m

2. A 200V, 4 pole, lap wound, d.c shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature. The resistance
of armature winding is 0.5 ohm & that of shunt field winding is 200 ohm. The motor takes a
current of 21A, the flux/pole is 30mWb. Find the speed & gross torque developed in the motor
Solution: Given V = 200 V P=4 lap connected A=P=4
DC shunt motor Z = 800 Ra= 0.5Ω and Rsh = 200Ω
IL = 21A φ = 30 x 10-3 wb
N =? Ta =?

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𝑃𝑁𝑍 𝐴
Wkt ∅ 60𝐴 , N=Eb× 60 × ∅𝑃𝑍

For DC Shunt motor

V= Eb + IaRa I,e Eb =V - IaRa
IL= Ia + Ish Ish=V/Rsh=200/200=1A
Ia= IL- Ish
= 21 -1 =20A
Eb=V-Ia Ra
=200-20x0.5
Therefore Eb=190V
60𝐴
N=Eb× ∅𝑃𝑍=190x60x4/30x103x4x800

N =475rpm
𝐼𝑎𝑃𝑍
Armature torque Ta=1/2𝜋 × ∅ 𝐴

=1/2𝜋 ×30x103x4x800/4
Ta =76.38N-m

3. A 4 pole, 220V, lap connected, DC shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot has 16 conductors. It
draws a current of 40A from the supply. The field and armature resistances are 110Ω and
0.1Ω respectively. The motor develop an output power of 6KW. the flux per pole is 40mwb
calculate
i) The speed
ii) Torque developed in the armature
iii) Shaft torque

Solution: Given V = 220 V P=4 lap connected A = P = 4 DC

shunt motor Z = 36 x16 =576
IL = 40A Ra= 0.1Ω and Rsh= 110Ω P =
6 𝑥103 W φ = 40 x 10-3 wb
N =? Ta =? Tsh =?
𝑃𝑁𝑍
WKT Eb=∅ 60𝐴
𝐴
N=Eb× 60 × ∅𝑃𝑍

For DC Shunt motor

V= Eb + IaRa I,e Eb =V - IaRa

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IL= Ia + Ish Ish=V/Rsh=220/110=2A

Ia= IL- Ish = 40 -2 =38A

Therefore Eb=V-Ia Ra =220-38x0.1=216.2V
𝐴 60𝐴
N=Eb× 60 × ∅𝑃𝑍 =216.2× × 40 x 10 − 3 × 4 × 576 ∴ N= 563.02 rpm
4

𝐼𝑎𝑃𝑍
Armature torque Ta=1/2𝜋 × ∅ 𝐴
576
Ta=1/2𝜋 × 40 × 103 × 38 × 4 × = 139.207N-m
4

𝑃
Shaft torque 𝑇𝑠ℎ = 𝑊 = 6 × 103/2𝜋60𝑁

Tsh=101.73N-m

4. A 220 V series motor is taking a current of 40A, resistance of armature 0.5 ohms,
resistance of series field is 0.25 ohms. Calculate i)Back Emf ii)Power wasted in armature, and
power wasted in series field.

Solution: Given V = 220

DC Series motor IL = 40A Ra= 0.5Ω and Rse= 0.25Ω
Eb =? Pa =? Pse =?
Wkt DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise= 40A
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)
Therefore Eb = V - Ia(Ra+ Rse)

Eb = 220 - 40(0.5+ 0.25) = 190V

Power wasted in armature Pa = I 2 R = 402 X 0.5 = 800 W

a a
Power wasted in series field Pse = Ise2 Rse = 402 X 0.25 = 400 W

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Table of contents

Module 4: Transformers & Three Phase Induction Motor

Chapter No. Topics Page No

TRANSFORMERS 4-1 to 4-8
4.1 Transformer working principle 4-1
4.2 Types of transformers 4-3
4.3 Losses in a transformer 4-4
4.4 Emf equation of a transformer 4-5
4,5 Condition for maximum efficiency 4-7
4.5.1 Problems on emf equation 4-8
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 4-16 to 4-22
4.6 Types of three phase induction motor 4-16
4.7 Rotating magnetic field 4-18
4.8 Slip Speed 4-20
4.9 Rotor frequency 4-21
4.9.1 Formulae & Problems 4-21
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MODULE 4
TRANSFORMERS
4.1. Working Principle of a Transformer
Q: Define transformer. Explain the working principle & construction of a transformer (6M)
Definition - Transformer is a static device which transfers electric power from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit, with desired change in voltage and current, with frequency maintained constant.
Working Principle: - A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two
magnetically coupled coils

N1=Number of turns in the primary winding

N2=Number of turns in the secondary winding

When the supply Voltage ‘V1’ is applied to the coil 1 the current ‘I1’ starts flowing in the winding,
which sets an alternating flux ‘φ’. Hence an emf ‘E1’ induced in coil 1 due the Electromagnetic
Induction.

i,e E1= -N1 𝑑Ø/dt (1)

The part of flux ‘φ’ links the coil 2, which induces an emf ‘E2’ in coil 2 due to Mutual Induction.
Hence current ‘I2’ starts flowing coil 2

I,e E2= -N2 𝑑Ø/dt (2)

Therefore, we will get output voltage ‘V2’ across the coil 2.

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Construction of a transformer:
There are two basic parts of a transformer:
1) Magnetic core 2) winding
➢ The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.
➢ The core is divided into i) Yoke ii) Limb
➢ Core is the Rectangular in shape, which is made of thin sheets of silicon steel, which are laminated
in order to reduce eddy current losses.
➢ The laminated sheets are overlapped so that to avoid air gap and they stamped together to form a
core.
➢ The steel laminations are insulated from each other by using insulations like varnish
➢ The core provides low reluctance path for the flux provided by the winding
➢ The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
➢ The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
➢ The core forms the magnetic circuit
➢ There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which forms the Electric circuit,
made up of conducting material like copper.
➢ The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding and having 'N1' number
of turns.
➢ The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having'N2' number of turns.

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4.2 Types of Transformers

Q: With a neat sketch explain the construction of a core type and a shell type single phase
transformer (8M July 2023)

Based on Construction the transformer is divided into:

CORE TYPE b) SHELL TYPE.

❖ Core type transformer:

➢ The windings encircle the core.

➢ It consists of 2 limbs on which the windings are wound.
➢ It is used for low voltage application

❖ Shell type transformer:

➢ It consists of 3 limbs and both the windings are wound on a central limb of the core.
➢ The core encircles the winding.
➢ It has double magnetic circuit.
➢ It used for used for high voltage application

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Based on of turns in primary and secondary winding the transformer is divided into:
a) STEP UP TRANSFORMER b) STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER c) ONE-ONE TRANSFORMER
a) Step up transformer
When N2 > N1 then (V2 > V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is known as Step up
transformer
b) Step down transformer
When N2 < N1 then (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side and isknown as Step
down transformer
c) One-one transformer
When N2 = N1 then V2 =V1 the voltage is same on both side

4.3 Losses in a Transformer

Q. Explain the various losses in a transformer and how to minimize them. ( 6M Jan 2024 )
The transformer has two types of losses
1. Core or Iron losses [constant losses]
a) Hysterisis Losses b) Eddy current losses
2. Copper losses [cu losses]

i) Iron Losses /Core Loss/Constant loss (Pi)

Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer.
Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis and eddy current loss.
➢ Hysteresis Loss
Due to the alternating flux setup in the core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of magnetization
and demagnetization. Due to hysteresis effect, there is a loss of energy in thisprocess which is called
hysteresis loss ⸫Ph=K1(Bm)1.6 f
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of core
➢ Eddy Current Loss
The EMF induced in the winding sets up an eddy current in the core, the losses due to the eddy current is
called eddy current losses ⸫PE=K2(Bm)1.6 f
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.

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ii) Copper losses (Pcu)

The copper losses are the power wasted in the form of I2 R loss due to the resistance of primary and
secondary winding.
The copper loss depends on the magnitude of current flowing though the windings
The losses can be minimized by designing the winding with low resistance conducting material
Thus, total losses in the transformer = iron losses + copper losses
Total loss = Pi +Pcu
⸫Copper loss at X-load is (XI)2R=X2 (Full load cu loss)

4.4 Emf Equation of a Transformer

Q:Derive the emf equation of a transformer and hence obtain the voltage and current transformation
ratios. (8M Mod-1,July 2023)
Let
N1 - No. of turns in the primary winding
N2 – No. of turns in the secondary winding
f – Frequency in Hz
Φ – flux in webers
E1- RMS value of emf induced in the primary in volts
E2 –RMS value of emf induced in the secondary in volts
When the supply Voltage is applied to the primary winding which sets an alternating flux ‘φ’.
Hence an EMF ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ are induced in the primary and secondary winding respectively
E=dɸ/dt----------------------------------(1)

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Let us consider 1/4th cycle of EMF shown in the figure

The change in flux in 1/4th cycle is dφ=Φm – 0 = Φm
The time taken to complete 1/4th of cycle is dt = 1/4f
Substituting dφ and dt in equation (1) we get
E=dɸ/dt = Φm/(1/4f) = 4 f Φm
we know that Erms = 1.11 x Eavg
Therefore, Erms = 1.11 X 4 f Φm
Erms = 4.44 f Φm induced per turn
If N1 & N2 are the number of turns in primary and secondary, then
E1 =4.44 f Φm N1 volts and
E2 =4.44 f Φm N2 volts respectively.

Transformation Ratio (K)

We know that 𝐸1 = 4.44 f Φm N1 & 𝐸2 = 4.44 f Φm N2
The Volt- Ampere (VA) rating of a transformer = V1I1=V2I2
Therefore, Transformation Ratio is
V2/V1 = E2/E1 = N2/N1 = I1/I2 = K

Turns ratio (n)

It’s the reciprocal of transformation ratio=1/K
V1/V2=E1/E2=N1/N2=I2/I1

4.5 Condition for Maximum Efficiency of a Transformer

Q: Derive an expression for condition for maximum efficiency (6 M)

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Problems

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THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

4.6 Types of Three Phase Induction Motor
Q:With a neat diagram Explain the types of Three phase induction motor.(8M July 2023, Mod-1
6M)
Construction of Induction Motor
A three-phase Induction motor mainly consists of two parts
1.Stator
2.Rotor
The stator is the stationary part of the induction motor, and the rotor is the rotating part.
1. Stator:
The stator is built up of high-grade alloy steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses.It has three main
parts, namely the frame, the stator core, and a stator winding.
Frame
It is the outer body of the motor. Its main function is to support the stator core and toprotect the inner
parts of the machine.
Stator Core
The stator core is built of high-grade silicon steel stampings. The stampings are fixed tothe stator
frame. Each stamping is insulated from the other with a thin varnish layer.
Slots are punched on the inner side of the stampings to carry the stator winding as shown in the figure
below:

Stator windings
The core of the stator carries three-phase windings which are supplied from a three-phase supply system.
These windings are either connected in star or delta.

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2. Rotor:
Construction of Rotor
The rotor is also built of thin laminations of the same material as the stator. The laminatedcylindrical
core is mounted directly on the shaft. These laminations are slotted on the outer side to
accommodate the rotor conductors.
There are two types of rotors.
➢ Squirrel Cage Rotor
➢ Slip ring or phase wound rotor
i). Squirrel Cage Rotor
➢ A squirrel cage rotor consists of a laminated cylindrical core.
➢ Each slot contains a bar conductor of aluminum or copper.
➢ At the end of the rotor the conductors are short-circuited by copper end rings.

ii) Slip Ring or Phase Wound Rotor

➢ The phase wound rotor is also called a slip ring rotor.
➢ The outer periphery of the rotor has a semi-closed slot that carries 3 phase insulated rotor windings.
➢ The three ends of 3-φ winding, are connected in star or delta , are permanently connected to slip
rings.
➢ With the help of slip rings the external resistances can be added to control the rotor speed.

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4.7 Rotating Magnetic Field

Q: With diagrams explain the concept of rotating magnetic field (6M July 23, 7M Jan 24)
Consider a 3- phase induction motor whose stator windings are mutually displaced from each other by
120° are connected in delta and energized by a 3- phase supply.

The currents flowing in each phase will set up a flux in the respective phases as shown

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The corresponding phase fluxes can be represented by the following equations

ΦR =Φm Sinθ
ΦY =Φm Sin(θ-120o)
ΦB = Φm Sin(θ-240o)
The resultant flux at any instant is given by the vector sum of the flux in each of the phases.
i) When θ = 0∘,
From the flux waveform diagram, we have
ΦR = 0

ΦY =Φm sin (-120∘) =- Φm √3/2

ΦB =Φm sin (-240∘) = Φm √3/2

The resultant flux Φr is given by,

So the magnitude of 𝝋r is 1.5𝝋𝒎 and its position is vertically upward at θ=0°

ii) When θ =60°

ΦR = Φm √3/2
ΦY =- Φm √3/2
ΦB =0

Therefore, 𝝋r = 1.5𝝋𝒎

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iii) When θ =120°

ΦR =Φm √3/2
ΦY =0
ΦB =-Φm √3/2

The magnitude of 𝝋r is 1.5𝝋𝒎 , but it has rotated through 120° in space, in clockwise direction from its
position θ =0°.

iv)When θ =180°
ΦR = 0;
ΦY = Φm √3/2
ΦB =- Φm √3/2
Therefore, 𝝋r = 1.5𝝋𝒎, but it has rotated through 180° in space, in clockwise direction from its
position θ =0°
Therefore, when a three phase supply is given to the stator winding a rotating magnetic field of constant
120𝑓
magnitude 1.5𝝋𝒎 and rotating with synchronous speed Ns= is produced.
𝑃

4.8 Slip Speed

Q: Define Slip speed of the induction motor (4 M)
The slip speed of the induction motor is defined as the difference between synchronous speed (Ns) and
the actual speed (N) of the rotor expressed as a fraction of synchronous speed.
% slip is expressed as S=
The actual speed of motor can be expressed as N= Ns (1-S)
At start, motor is at rest and hence its speed N=0
Therefore S=1 at start

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4.9 Rotor Frequency

Q: Derive an expression for Frequency of rotor current (5M)
When the rotor is at standstill, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply frequency.
At any speed N of the rotor, the frequency of the rotor current be f `.

4.10 Formulae
1. Ns=120f/P
2. %S=(Ns-N)/Ns×100
3. N=Ns(1-S)
4. fꞌ=sf

Problems
1. A three phase induction motor with 4 poles is supplied from the alternator having 6 poles running
at 1000rpm. Calculate synchronous speed, rotor speed of the induction motor when slip is 0.04
and frequency of the rotor emf when the speed is 600rpm (6M)
Given Induction Motor-Pm=4,
Alternator-Pa=6 Na=1000rpm
Therefore Supply frequency f= PaNa/120
=6×1000/120

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=50Hz
Synchronous Speed Ns=120f/Pm
=120×50/4
=1500rpm
&N=600rpm If S=0.04, fr=sf=0.04×50=2Hz

2.A 6- pole alternator runs at 1000rpm supplies power to a 4 pole induction motor. The frequency
of rotor of induction motor is 2hz.Determine slip & speed of the motor. (4M)
Synchronous Speed Ns=120f/P=1000×6/120=50Hz

Ns=120f/P

=120×50/4

=1500rpm

N= Ns(1-S)

=1500(1-0.04)

=1440rpm ⸫S=f’/f=2/50=0.04=4%

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Table of contents

Module 5: Domestic Wiring, Tariff and Electrical Safety

Chapter No. Topics Page No

DOMESTIC WIRING 5-1 to 5-5
5.1 Domestic Wiring 5-1
5.1.2 Casing and Capping wiring system 5-1
5.1.3 Two-way control of lamps / Staircase wiring 5-2
5.1.4 Three-way control of lamps / Verandah wiring 5-3
5.2 Electricity Bill 5-3 to 5-5
5.2.1 Power rating of household appliances 5-3
5.2.2 Electrical Unit 5-4
5.2.3 Two Part Tariff 5-5
EQUIPMENT SAFETY MEASURES 5-6 to 5-7
5.3.1 Fuse 5-6
5.3.2 Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) 5-7
PERSONAL SAFETY MEASURES 5-8 to 5-10
5.4.1 Precautions against Electric shock 5-8
5.4.2 Earthing 5-8 to 5-10
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MODULE 5
DOMESTIC WIRING
5.1.1 Domestic Wiring:
Question: What is Domestic wiring and explain the requirements of the domestic wiring? (7M)
➢ Wiring done in domestic premises(houses), for providing electrical power for lighting, fans and
domestic appliances is called domestic wiring.
➢ For domestic wiring the most extensively used conductor material is Copper or Aluminum
Domestic wiring requirements:
➢ Electrical Safety: There must be no danger of leakage or of electric shock to person using the supply.
➢ Mechanical Immunity: The wiring selected for a particular type of building should be able to
withstand weather changes for a long period and should be protected from physical damage during
its usage.
➢ Permanence: There should not be any undue deterioration in wiring due to the action of dampness,
fumes, weather etc.
➢ Appearance: In certain cases appearance (Concealed wiring) is important. However, in case of
factory wiring, neatness is more important than appearance.
➢ Cost: The cost of wiring installation is an important consideration. The system chosen should depend
upon the type of building and the purpose for which it is used, keeping economy in view.
➢ Grounding: Proper grounding of electrical systems is necessary to prevent electrical shock and
protect against electrical faults.
➢ Accessibility: Wiring should be installed in a way that allows for easy access for maintenance and
repairs.

5.1.2 Casing and Capping wiring system

Question: Explain casing and capping?(7M) June 23
➢ The casing and capping wiring system is a surface wiring system used in buildings where it
is not practical to conceal the wiring in walls or ceilings.
➢ The wiring system has
➢ Casing: Casing refers to the PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or GI (galvanized iron) conduit that is used to
enclose and protect the electrical wires. The casing is typically fixed to the surface of walls using
clips
➢ Capping: Capping is a cover that is placed over the casing to protect the wiring and provide a neat

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finish. The capping is also fixed to the surface using clips.

➢ Wiring: The electrical wires are run inside the casing which has separate grooves for the wires, which
protects them from physical damage and environmental factors.
Advantages:
➢ cost-effective
➢ Easy to install compared to concealed wiring system
➢ Allows for easy maintenance and alterations.
➢ It is also suitable for both surface and concealed wiring. Figure 1: Casing & Capping wiring
➢ Wires of opposite polarity are kept apart in separate grooves of the casing
Disadvantages:
➢ Not durable or robust as other wiring systems.
➢ The exposed wiring is more susceptible to damage from impact or environmental factors.
➢ High risk of fire hazards
➢ It is more visible and may not be as aesthetically pleasing.
➢ Highly skilled wireman are required to make satisfactory job

5.1.3 Two-way control of lamps / Staircase wiring

Question: With a neat circuit diagram and switching table explain two way and three-way control of
load (8M) Jan 23/June 23/Jan 24

➢ A single lamp is controlled by either of the two switches.

➢ When position of switch S1 is connected to terminal B1 and the switch S2 is connected to terminal
C2, the circuit is not complete, and the lamp is OFF.
➢ Now by changing of either of the switches, the circuit can be made complete and the lamp can be
turned ON.
➢ The truth table shows the position of switches and the condition of lamps.

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5.1.4 Three-way control of lamps / Verandah wiring

➢ Switches S1 & S2 are the two-way switches.

➢ Switch S3 is the intermediate switch couples the two two-way switches S1 and S2. It has 4 terminals
PQRS. And two possible connections, PQ & RS which is called the straight connection, and PS &
QR , which is called the cross connection.
➢ When S1 & S2 are in position B1 & C2 respectively and intermediate switch is in straight connection
i.e PQ & RS, the circuit is open and the lamp is OFF. If S2 is moved to B2, the circuit is complete
and the lamp is ON
➢ If S3 is changed to cross connection i.e. PS & QR, S2 is connected to B1 and S2 is connected to C2,
the circuit is complete and the lamp is ON. If the switch changes its position from C2 to B2, then the
circuit is incomplete and the lamp is OFF.
➢ Thus, it is possible to control the lamp from 3 points.
➢ The truth table shows the position of switches and the condition of lamps.

5.2 Electricity Bill

5.2.1 Power rating of household appliances
➢ The Power rating of the appliance is related to the power it consumes which is given in Watts or
kilowatts
➢ The Energy consumption of a device is calculated by multiplying the wattage of a device and
operational hours
Energy consumption = Wattage X operational hours.

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Question:
(i) List out the power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, laptops,
printers, etc. Find the total power consumed.
(ii) Also find the number of units consumed in a month? (6M) Jan24
➢ The Power rating of the appliance is related to the power it consumes
➢ Energy consumption = Wattage X operational hours.
Let us consider different home appliances to calculate approximate total energy consumptionof house
per month.
No of Energy consumedin
Total no of Total nokilowatt
Sl NO Appliances Watts NO operational kwh(units) perday =
watts (KW)
hours per day energy consumed / 1000

1 Tube light 60 W 10 600 0.6 6 3.6

2 Fan 75 W 4 300 0.3 10 3
3 Refrigerator 200W 1 200 0.2 24 4.8
4 AC 1000W 1 1000 1 5 5
5 Laptop 50W 1 50 0.05 5 0.25
6 Television 50W 1 50 0.05 3 0.15
7 Grinders 1000W 1 1000 1 ½ 0.5
8 Printers 50W 1 50 0.05 ½ 0.025

9 Washing 2000W 1 2000 2 6 12

machine
10 Micro wave 1000W 1 1000 1 5 5
6.25KW 34.32 units
(i) Total power consumed is=6.25KW
(ii) Therefore per day 34.32 units of energy is consumed
For 1 month = 34.32 x 30 = 1029.6 units per month

5.2.2 Electrical Unit

Question: Define “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy and explain the two-part tariff with
its advantages and disadvantages? (8M)
➢ The unit of electrical energy consumed in kWh.
➢ One kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 kW when
it is used for one hour.
➢ Therefore 1kwh =1 unit.

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5.2.3 Two Part Tariff

➢ In this tariff scheme, the total costs charged to the consumers consist of two components:fixed
charges and variable charges . It can be expressed as:
Total Cost = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] Rs
Where, Fixed charges, A = charge per kW of max demand
Variable charges, B = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
➢ The fixed charges will depend upon maximum demand of the consumer and the variable charge will
depend upon the energy (units) consumed.
➢ The fixed charges are due to generation, transmission and maintenance.
Advantages
➢ If a consumer does not consume any energy in a particular month, the supplier will get the return
equal to the fixed charges.
➢ It is easily understood by the consumers
Disadvantages
➢ If a consumer does not use any electricity, he has to pay the fixed charges regularly.
➢ The maximum demand of the consumer is not determined. Hence, there is error of assessment of max
demand.

Problems
1) An electric boiler draws 6Amps current at 230V for 4 hrs. The electricity cost is Rs.3 per unit.
Determine the total cost? Jan 2023
Solution: Given: I=6A, V=230V, t=4hrs, Cost/unit=Rs.3
To find: Total Cost=?
P = VI =230×6 = 1380W
WKT E=P×t
= Wattage × Operational hrs
= VI× t
= 1.38× 4
E = 5.520 KWH
3
Total Cost =5.520 kwh ×𝑘𝑤ℎ =Rs.16.56

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2) An electric heater draws a current of 10 Amps from 220V supply. What is the cost of using heater
5 hrs/day for 30 days, if cost of one unit is Rs.2.50?
Solution: E= P× t
= Wattage × Operational hrs
= VI× t
= 220×10×(5×30)
= 330 KWH
2.50
Total cost = 330 kwh ×𝑘𝑤ℎ =Rs.825

5.3 Equipment safety Measures

Question: With neat diagram explain the working principle of fuse(8M) Jan23/June 23

5.3.1 Fuse
An Electric Fuse is a basic protective device which melts whenever the current in the circuit exceed the
rated value, either due to overload or short circuit, thus protecting the circuit.
Principle of operation of fuse

➢ A Fuse consists of conducting wire, which has high resistivity and low melting point.
➢ The fuse element is made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum or alloys.
➢ Fuse works on the principle of heating effect of the Electric Current
➢ Whenever there is a fault in the circuit such as short circuit or overload, excessive current flows
through the fusing element due to which heat (H=I2Rt) is produced. This increases the temperature
rapidly and the fuse melts and breaks the circuit
➢ Once a Fuse melts, it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse.

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5.3.2 Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) :

Question: Write Short notes on MCB?
➢ A MCB is an automatically operated electrical switch. It is designed to protect an electrical circuit
from overload or short circuit.
➢ The main function of an MCB is to open the circuit automatically when the current passing through
MCB exceeds the value for which it is set.
➢ MCB can be reset either manually or automatically to resume normal operation
➢ An MCB is a simple, easily operable device and is maintenance-free too.
Working
Thermal Tripping:
➢ When the overflow of current takes place through MCB , the bimetallic strip gets heated and it deflects
by bending.
➢ The deflection of the bi-metallic strip or trip bar releases a latch.
➢ The latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping the flow of the current in the circuit.
➢ To restart the flow of current, MCB must be turned ON manually.

Magnetic Tripping:
➢ In the case of short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly in an unpredictable way, leading to
the electromechanical displacement of the plunger associated with a solenoid.The plunger hits the trip
lever, it causes the automatic release of the latch mechanism by opening the circuit breaker contacts.
➢ The trip unit is the key part of the MCB on which the unit operates.
➢ The bi-metal present in the MCB circuit protects against overload current which is called thermal
tripping and the electromagnet in the circuit protects against short-circuit current which is called
magnetic tripping.

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5.4 Personal Safety Measures

Question: What is electric shock? Give the list of preventive measures against the shock? (8M)
Jan23/June23/Jan24
An electric shock is the sudden discharge of electricity through a part of the body when aperson
comes in contact with electrical equipment.

5.4.1 Precautions against Electric shock

➢ Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of the electric current.
➢ Never use equipment with damaged insulation. The insulation of conductors must be proper and in
good condition.
➢ Broken switches, plugs etc should be replaces immediately.
➢ Before replacing a broken switch, plug or blown fuse always switch off the main supply
➢ Earth connection should be maintained in proper condition
➢ Use the rubber soled shoes and safety belts while working on the electric poles.
➢ It is preferable to work in presence of an assistant so that he can immediately disconnect supply when
needed.
➢ Use a line tester to check whether the terminal is live.
➢ Never touch two different terminals at the same time.
➢ Never try to connect machines or equipment’s to a voltage supply other than the rated one.
➢ Never remove the plug by pulling wire.
➢ Never insert bare wires in the holes of the socket for taking a connection.
➢ The sockets should be placed at a proper height
➢ Switch off supply and remove the fuses before starting the work with any installation.
➢ Always use insulated screw drivers and line testers.

5.4.2 Earthing:
Question: Define earthing. List the different type of earthing and explain anyone with a neat diagram.
(8M) Jan23/June23/Jan24
➢ An electrical equipment is said to be earthed, if its outer frame & its other parts not carrying any
current are connected to earth, so as to attain nearly earth potential. This process is called Earthing.
➢ The purpose of earthing is to ensure that all parts of the system other than live-parts are maintained
at the earth potential at all times.

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Types of Earthing
They are two types of earthing
1. Plate earthing
2. Pipe earthing

5.4.2.1 Plate Earthing:

➢ The metallic body i.e plate which is embedded in the earth is called the earth electrode.
➢ The plate used is of following dimensions
➢ Cu plate: 0.3m×0.3m×6.35mm
➢ GI plate:0.3m×0.3m×3.2mm
➢ Cu plate is mostly used as it is less affected by moisture and not easily rusted
➢ The plate is buried to a depth not less than 2m and at least 0.6m away from the foundation of any
building.
➢ The plate is surrounded by the alternate layers of salt and charcoal with a minimum thickness of about
30mm & 80mm thick respectively which is used to increase the conductivity of the soil around the
earth electrode.
➢ The earth wires drawn through the GI pipe are bolted through the earth plate.
➢ The funnel is provided to pour salt water periodically for an effective earthing

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5.4.2.2 Pipe Earthing:

➢ The metallic body i.e pipe which is embedded in the earth is called the earth electrode.
➢ The size of the pipe is 2m long & 38mm diameter
➢ The GI pipe with few holes is buried to a depth not less than 2m & at least 0.6m away from the
foundation of any building
➢ The plate is surrounded by the alternate layers of salt and charcoal with a minimum thickness of about
30mm & 80mm thick respectively which is used to increase the conductivity of the soil around the
earth electrode
➢ The earth wires are connected to the top section of the pipe above the ground level with nuts and bolts
➢ The funnel is provided to pour salt water periodically for an effective earthing
The contact surface of GI pipe with the soil is more as compared to the plate. Hence it can handle large
leakage current for the same electrode size

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