3.

4 Standards Organizations

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Standards Organizations
Open Standards
Open standards encourage:
• interoperability

• competition

• innovation

Standards organizations are:

• vendor-neutral

• non-profit organizations

• established to develop and promote the

concept of open standards.

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Standards Organizations
• Internet Society (ISOC) - Promotes
Internet Standards the open development and evolution of
internet
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB) -
Responsible for management and
development of internet standards
• Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) - Develops, updates, and
maintains internet and TCP/IP
technologies
• Internet Research Task Force
(IRTF) - Focused on long-term
research related to internet and
TCP/IP protocols
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Standards Organizations
Internet Standards (Cont.)
Standards organizations involved with the
development and support of TCP/IP
• Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN) -
Coordinates IP address allocation, the
management of domain names, and
assignment of other information
• Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) - Oversees and manages IP
address allocation, domain name
management, and protocol identifiers
for ICANN

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Standards Organizations
Electronic and Communications Standards
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”)
- dedicated to creating standards in power and energy, healthcare,
telecommunications, and networking
• Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - develops standards relating to electrical
wiring, connectors, and the 19-inch racks used to mount networking equipment
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - develops communication
standards in radio equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices,
satellite communications, and more
• International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) - defines standards for video compression,
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband communications, such as a
digital subscriber line (DSL)
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Standards Organizations
Lab – Researching Networking Standards
In this lab, you will do the following:
• Part 1: Research Networking Standards Organizations
• Part 2: Reflect on Internet and Computer Networking Experience

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3.5 Reference Models

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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model
Complex concepts such as how a
network operates can be difficult to
explain and understand. For this
reason, a layered model is used.
Two layered models describe network
operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model

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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (Cont.)
These are the benefits of using a layered model:
• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above
and below
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together

• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers
above and below
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 9
Reference Models
The OSI Reference Model
OSI Model Layer Description
7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
Provides for common representation of the data transferred between application
6 - Presentation
layer services.

5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.

Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
4 - Transport
communications.

3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.

2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

1 - Physical Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections.

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Reference Models
The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model
Description
Layer
Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.

Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.

Internet Determines the best path through the network.

Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 11
Reference Models
OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison

• The OSI model divides the network

access layer and the application
layer of the TCP/IP model into
multiple layers.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when
transmitting over a physical medium.
• OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the
necessary procedures to access the
media and the physical means to
send data over a network.

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Reference Models
Packet Tracer – Investigate the TCP/IP and OSI Models in Action
This simulation activity is intended to provide a foundation for understanding the
TCP/IP protocol suite and the relationship to the OSI model. Simulation mode
allows you to view the data contents being sent across the network at each layer.
In this Packet Tracer, you will:
• Part 1: Examine HTTP Web Traffic
• Part 2: Display Elements of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 13
3.6 Data Encapsulation

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Data Encapsulation
Segmenting Messages Segmenting is the process of breaking up
messages into smaller units. Multiplexing is
the processes of taking multiple streams of
segmented data and interleaving them
together.

Segmenting messages has two primary

benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts of
data can be sent over the network
without tying up a communications link.

• Increases efficiency - Only segments

which fail to reach the destination need to
be retransmitted, not the entire data
stream.

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Data Encapsulation
Sequencing

Sequencing messages is the process of

numbering the segments so that the
message may be reassembled at the
destination.
TCP is responsible for sequencing the
individual segments.

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Data Encapsulation Encapsulation is the process where protocols
Protocol Data Units add their information to the data.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions.
• There is no universal naming convention for
PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named
according to the protocols of the TCP/IP
suite.
• PDUs passing down the stack are as
follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
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Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation Example
• Encapsulation is a top down
process.
• The level above does its
process and then passes it
down to the next level of the
model. This process is
repeated by each layer until
it is sent out as a bit stream.

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Data Encapsulation
De-encapsulation Example
• Data is de-encapsulated as it moves up
the stack.
• When a layer completes its process,
that layer strips off its header and
passes it up to the next level to be
processed. This is repeated at each
layer until it is a data stream that the
application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment
5. Data (Data Stream)
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