Mathematical Language

and Symbols
FUNCTIONS
Functions
A function is a relation in which every input is paired with exactly
one output.

A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain A

and co-domain B that satisfies the following two properties:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F.

2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.
Functions
We think of functions as sending elements from one set
(domain), to another set (co-domain). Each element in the
domain corresponds to one and only one element of the co-
domain.

Notation
If A and B are sets and F is a function from A to B, then given
elements x in A, the unique element in B that is related to x by F
is denoted by F(x), which is read as “F of x.”
Functions
Example:
Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}.
Which of the relations R, S, and T defined
below are functions from A to B?
a. R = { (2,5), (4,1), (4,3), (6,5) }
b. For all (x, y) ∈ A×B, (x, y) ∈ S means that
y = x + 1.
c. T is defined by the arrow diagram.
Functions
Example:
Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}.
Which of the relations R, S, and T defined below are functions
from A to B?
a. R = { (2,5), (4,1), (4,3), (6,5) }
ANSWER:
R is not a function because it does not satisfy property 2. The
ordered pairs (4, 1) and (4, 3) have the same first element.
Functions
Example:
Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}.
Which of the relations R, S, and T defined below are functions from A to B?
b. For all (x, y) ∈ A×B, (x, y) ∈ S means that y = x + 1.
ANSWER:
S is not a function because it does not satisfy property 1. It is
not true that every element of A is the first element of an ordered
pair in S. For example, 6 ∈ A but there is no y in B such that
y = 6 +1 = 7.
Functions
Example:
Let A = {2, 4, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5}.
Which of the relations R, S, and T defined below are functions from A to B?
c. T is defined by the arrow diagram.

ANSWER:
T is a function. Each element in {2, 4, 6} is related to some
elements in {1, 3, 5} and no element in {2, 4, 6} is related to more
than one element in (1, 3, 5}.
Functions
NOTE:
✓ If the set of ordered pairs have different x-coordinates, it is a
function.
✓ If the set of ordered pairs have the same x-coordinates, it is
not a function but it could be a relation.
✓ Y-coordinates have no bearing in determining functions.
✓ Function is a relation but a relation could not be said a
function.
Operations on Functions
a.) The sum and difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g is the
function defined by (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).
b.) The product of f and g, denoted by f ⋅ g is the function defined
by (f ⋅ g)(x) = f(x) ⋅ g(x) .
c.) The quotient of f and g , denoted by f/g is the function defined
by f(x)/g(x), where g(x) is not equal to zero.
d.) The composite function of f and g , denoted by f ∘ g is the
function defined by (f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, g ∘ f is the
function defined by (g ∘ f)(x) = g(f(x)).
Operations on Functions
Example:
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f + g)(x)?
Solution:
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
(f + g)(x) = (2x + 1) + (3x + 2)
(f + g)(x) = 2x + 3x + 1 + 2
(f + g)(x) = 5x + 3
Operations on Functions
Example:
If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f ⋅ g)(x)?
Solution:
(f ⋅ g)(x) = f(x) ⋅ g(x)
(f ⋅ g)(x) = (2x + 1) ⋅ (3x + 2)
(f ⋅ g)(x) = 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2
(f ⋅ g)(x) = 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2
Operations on Functions
Example:
If f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = 𝑥 2 , what is (f ∘ g)(x)?
Solution:
(f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x))
(f ∘ g)(x) = f(𝑥 2 )
(f ∘ g)(x) = 3(𝑥 2 ) + 1
(f ∘ g)(x) = 3𝑥 2 + 1
Operations on Functions
Example:
If f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = 𝑥 2 , what is (g ∘ f)(x)?
Solution:
(g ∘ f)(x) = g(f(x))
(g∘ f)(x) = g(3𝑥 + 1)
(g ∘ f)(x) = 3𝑥 + 1 2

(g ∘ f)(x) = 9𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 1
(g ∘ f)(x) = 9𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1
BINARY OPERATIONS
Binary Operation
Binary Operation on a set is a calculation that combines two
elements of the set (called operands) to produce another element
of set.

Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * on G is said to be a

binary operation on G if for every pair of elements, a, b is in G
that is (a, b) ∈ G; the product a*b ∈ G.
Binary Operation
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

1.) G ∈ Z define a * b = a + b (usual addition on Z)

Solution:
Let a ∈ Z and b ∈ Z. If we add a and b, then the sum a + b ∈ Z.
Hence, a * b = a + b is binary operation.
Binary Operation
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

2.) G ∈ Z define a * b = ab (usual multiplication on Z)

Solution:
Let a, b ∈ Z. Then the product of a and b, that is ab ∈ Z.
Hence, a * b = ab is binary operation.
Binary Operation
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

3.) G ∈ 𝑅 + defined by a * b = a + 17b

Solution:
Let a, b ∈ 𝑅 + . If we take the sum of a + 17b, we’ll get positive
real numbers (a + 17b ∈ 𝑅 + ). Hence, it is a binary operation.
Binary Operation
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

4.) G ∈ 𝑍 + defined * by a * b = a – b for all set a, b ∈ 𝑍 + .

Solution:
If a > b, then a – b > 0 which is an ∈ 𝑍 +
If a < b, then a – b < 0 which is not ∉ 𝑍 +
Therefore, * is NOT a binary operation.
Binary Operation
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

5.) G ∈ 𝑅 defined by a * b = 𝑎𝑏 .
Solution:
To be able to determine if the above statement is a binary operation or not, we
need to have a counter example.

If a = 0 and b = 0, then 𝑎𝑏 does not exist, hence it is not an element of R.

If a = - 4 and b = ½ , then 𝑎𝑏 would be an element of a complex number C,
so 𝑎𝑏 ∉ R.
Therefore, * is NOT a binary operation.
Binary Operation
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

6.) G ∈ 𝑍\{-1}, defined * by a * b = a + b + ab for all set a, b ∈ 𝑍.

Solution:
Let a, b ∈ 𝑍 except -1, then a > -1 and b > -1 and a < -1 and
b < -1. If a * b = a + b + ab, it follows that a * b = a + b + ab ∈ 𝑍
since in both case the result would be Z, hence * is a binary
operation.
Binary Operation
CLOSED
A set is “closed” under operation if the operation assigns to
every ordered pair of elements from the set, an element of the
set.
Illustrative example:
1.) Is S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …..} closed under the usual
addition?

Using counterexample: say 1 and 3, the sum of 1 + 3 = 4, where

4 is not an element of S. Hence, it is not closed.
Binary Operation
Illustrative example:
2.) Let + and ⋅ be usual binary operations of addition and
multiplication of Z and let H = {𝑛2 |n ∈ 𝑍 + }. Is H closed under
addition? Under multiplication?

To be able to determine if H is closed under addition, we need to

have a counter- example. Let us take two elements in Z, say 1
and 4. I we are going to add these two numbers, the result
would be 5, and obviously 5 ∉ 𝒏𝟐 . Hence, H is not closed under
addition.
Binary Operation
Illustrative example:
2.) Let + and ⋅ be usual binary operations of addition and multiplication of Z
and let H = {𝑛2 |n ∈ 𝑍 + }. Is H closed under addition? Under multiplication?

Let r ∈ H and s ∈ H, using H x H ∈ (r, s) = r ⋅ s .

Since r ∈ H and s ∈ H, that means there must be an integer n
and m such that r = 𝑛2 and s = 𝑚2 .
So, (r, s) = r ⋅ s = 𝑛2 ⋅ 𝑚2 = 𝑛𝑚 2
And n, m ∈ 𝑍 + . It follows that nm ∈ 𝑍 + , then 𝑛𝑚 2 ∈ H. Hence,
H is closed under multiplication.
Binary Operation
Let * be a binary operation on set S.
(1) * is associative if for all a, b, c ∈ S, (a*b)*c = a*(b*c)
(2) * is commutative if for all a, b ∈ S, a*b = b*a
(3) An element e ∈ S is called a left identity element if for all
a ∈ S, we have e*a = a
(4) An element e ∈ S is called a right identity element if for all
a ∈ S, we have a*e = a
Binary Operation
Let * be a binary operation on set S.
(5) An element e ∈ S is called an identity element if for all a ∈ S,
we have a*e = a and e * a = a.
(6) Let e be an identity element and a ∈ S, then b is called an
inverse of the element “a” if a*b = e and b*a = e.

Note that: a*b = b*a = e or a*𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 * a = e

If a ∈ S, then the inverse of “a” is denoted by 𝑎−1 .
Binary Operation
Example: (a) Associativity
Let S = 𝑍 + as define * Let a, b, c ∈ 𝑍 +
on S by
a*b = a + b – ab. Then; (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Show the associativity
and commutativity of S For (a * b) * c
in a binary operation.
Find also its identity (a * b) * c = (a + b – ab) * c
and inverse if any. = (a + b – ab) + c - (a + b – ab)(c)
= a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc
Binary Operation
Example: (a) Associativity
Let S = 𝑍 + as define * Let a, b, c ∈ 𝑍 +
on S by
a*b = a + b – ab. Then; (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Show the associativity
and commutativity of S For a * (b * c)
in a binary operation.
Find also its identity a * (b * c) = a * (b + c – bc)
and inverse if any. = a + (b + c – bc) – (a)(b + c – bc)
= a + b + c – bc – ab – ac + abc
Hence, * is associative on S ∈ 𝑍 + .
Binary Operation
Example: (b) Commutative
Let S = 𝑍 + as define * Let a, b, c ∈ 𝑍 +
on S by Then; a * b = b * a
a*b = a + b – ab.
Show the associativity
and commutativity of S
a*b=b*a
in a binary operation. a + b – ab = b + a – ba
Find also its identity a + b – ab = a + b – ab
and inverse if any.

Hence, * is commutative on S ∈ 𝑍 + .
Binary Operation
Example: (c) Identity
Let S = 𝑍 + as define *
on S by
a*b = a + b – ab. a*e=a e*a=a
Show the associativity a + e – ae = a e + a – ea = a
and commutativity of S e – ae = a – a e – ea = a – a
in a binary operation.
Find also its identity e(1 - a) = 0 e(1 - a) = 0
and inverse if any. e=0 e=0

Hence, identity exist except when a = 1.

Binary Operation
Example: (d) Inverse
Let S = 𝑍 + as define *
on S by
𝑎 * 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 * 𝑎 = e
a*b = a + b – ab.
Show the associativity
= 𝑎 + 𝑎−1 − 𝑎𝑎−1 = 0
and commutativity of S 𝑎 + 𝑎−1 − 𝑎𝑎−1 = 0
in a binary operation.
Find also its identity 𝑎−1 (1 − 𝑎) = -𝑎
and inverse if any. −1 −𝑎
𝑎 =
1−𝑎
Test Yourself
1.) The binary operation * is defined over the set R of real
numbers by a * b = a + b + 2ab, a, b ∈ R
a.) Find the inverse under * of a general element a ∈ R
b.) State which element has no inverse
c.) Determine the inverse of 2 and 3.
Test Yourself
1.) The binary operation * is defined over the set R of real
numbers by a * b = a + b + 2ab, a, b ∈ R
a.) Find the inverse under * of a general element a ∈ R

a*e=e*a=a a * a−1 = a−1 * a = e

a * e = a + e + 2ae = a
a * a−1 = a + a−1 + 2aa−1 = 0
a + e + 2ae = a
e + 2ae = a - a a + a−1 + 2aa−1 = 0
e + 2ae = 0 a−1 + 2aa−1 = −a
e(1 + 2a) = 0 a−1 1 + 2a = −a
e=0 −𝐚
a−1 =
𝟏+𝟐𝐚
Test Yourself
1.) The binary operation * is defined over the set R of real
numbers by a * b = a + b + 2ab, a, b ∈ R
b.) State which element has no inverse
To determine which element has no inverse, equate the
denominator of inverse expression to zero.

−1 −𝐚 Therefore,
a = 1 + 2𝑎 = 0
𝟏+𝟐𝐚
2𝑎 = −1
−𝟏
𝑎=
𝟐
Test Yourself
1.) The binary operation * is defined over the set R of real
numbers by a * b = a + b + 2ab, a, b ∈ R
c.) Determine the inverse of 2 and 3.
−𝐚 −𝐚
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2 = 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3 =
𝟏+𝟐𝐚 𝟏+𝟐𝐚
−𝟐 −𝟑
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2 = 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3 =
𝟏+𝟐(𝟐) 𝟏+𝟐(𝟑)

−𝟐 −𝟑
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 2 = 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 3 =
𝟓 𝟕
Test Yourself
2.) A binary operation * defined on a closed set R is said to be
associative if (a * b)*c = a*(b * c), a, b, c ∈ R.
Given that a * b = 2a + ab, evaluate:
a.) (2 * 3)*4
b.) 2*(3 * 4)
Test Yourself
2.) A binary operation * defined on a closed set R is said to be
associative if (a * b)*c = a*(b * c), a, b, c ∈ R.
Given that a * b = 2a + ab, evaluate:
a.) (2 * 3)*4
Solution:
(2 * 3)*4 = [2(2) + 2(3)] *4
= 10 * 4
= 2(10) + 10(4)]
= 20 + 40
= 60
Test Yourself
2.) A binary operation * defined on a closed set R is said to be
associative if (a * b)*c = a*(b * c), a, b, c ∈ R.
Given that a * b = 2a + ab, evaluate:
b.) 2*(3 * 4)
Solution:
2*(3 * 4) = 2*[2(3) + 3(4)]
= 2 * 18
= 2(2) + 2(18)]
= 4 + 36
Since (2 * 3)*4 ≠ 2*(3 * 4),
= 40
then * is not associative.
Test Yourself
3.) A binary operation * is defined on the set R of real
numbers by p * q = p + q - 2 , where p, q ∈ R.
Find the identity element e of R under *.
Solution:
p*e=p
p+e- 2=p
e- 2=p-p
e- 2=0
e= 𝟐
Test Yourself
3.) A binary operation * is defined on the set R of real
numbers by p * q = p + q - 2 , where p, q ∈ R.
Find the inverse element of p.

Solution:
p * p−1 = e
p + p−1 - 2 = 2
p−1 = 2 + 2 - p
p−1 = 𝟐 𝟐 - p
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