Unit 4

Functional Materials:
• Magnetic Materials: Introduction to Weiss theory of ferromagnetism,
concepts of magnetic domains, spontaneous magnetization, Curie
transition, hard and soft magnetic materials and their applications.

• Dielectric materials: Introduction to dielectrics, dielectric constant,

polarizability, frequency and temperature-dependent polarization
mechanism in dielectrics, dielectric loss and applications
 Fundamental terms
(i) Magnetic field, H: The magnetic field in which a material is kept is called magnetizing field. The

strength (or intensity) of the magnetic field is denoted by H. The units of H are ampere-turns

per metre (A/m) in SI system. Magnetic field is produced by permanent magnets such as a

horse shoe magnet and temporarily by electromagnets or superconductor-magnets.

(ii) Magnetization, M: The magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside a solid is called

magnetization and is denoted by M. In SI system, M is measured in amperes per metre (A/m).

Since the magnetization is induced by the field, we may assume that M is proportional to H.

Thus, M ∝ H or M = χH, where χ is the proportionality constant and is known as magnetic

susceptibility.
(iii) Magnetic Susceptibility, χ: The magnetic susceptibility of a material is a
measure of the ease with which the material can be magnetized. It is defined as
magnetization produced in the material per unit applied magnetic field.
Thus, χ = M / H In general, the vectors M and H can have different directions and χ
is a tensor. However, in isotropic media, M and H point in the same direction and χ
is a scalar quantity. Materials having high susceptibility are easily magnetized.

(iv) Magnetic Induction, B: A magnetic field is schematically represented by lines

of magnetic induction. It is described either by magnetic field strength H or by the
magnetic induction (or magnetic flux density), B. The lines of induction are
collectively called flux. The number of field lines passing through a unit area of
cross-section is called the magnetic flux density.
B = Magnetic flux / area = ϕ / A.
The quantity B is measured in weber per square metre (Wb/m2) or tesla (T).
The cgs unit for magnetic induction is the gauss (G). 1 G = 10–4 T.
 Relationship between B and H
When a material is kept in a magnetic field, two types of induction arise:
one due to the magnetizing field, H and the other
as a consequence of the magnetization, M of the material itself.

The magnetic induction, B, produced inside the material is given by

B = µ0 (H + M) where µ0 is known as the permeability of the free space. It is
equal to 4Π × 10–7 henry per metre (H/m).
Additionally,
B = µ0 (1 + χ )H
or B = µ H, where µ is called the absolute permeability of the medium.
Like χ, µ is in general a tensor. In isotropic medium, it is a scalar quantity. In
case of free space, M = 0 and equ. above reduces to B = µ0H
(v) Absolute Permeability, µ : When a magnetic material is placed in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field lines are redistributed and tend to
pass more (or less in some cases) through the material.
The absolute permeability of the material is a measure of the degree
of which the field lines penetrate or permeate the material. It is
defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction, B, in the medium to the
magnetizing field, H. Thus, µ = B / H. The unit of absolute permeability
is henry per metre (H/m).

(vi) Relative Permeability, µr : The relative permeability of a material is

defined as the ratio of the absolute permeability of that material to
the permeability of free space. That is, µr = µ/µ0.
µr is only a number and has no units. Its value for air or vacuum is
equal to unity. Thus, µr = 1
 ORIGIN OF MAGNETIZATION
The magnetic properties of solids arise due to electrons undergoing different motions in the atoms,
which give rise to magnetic dipole moments. These magnetic dipole moments are responsible for
the magnetic properties of materials. In general, the magnetic dipole moment of the atom arises
from three sources:
1. The orbital motion of electrons: The atom of any material consists of a central nucleus and
the electrons move around the nucleus in specific orbits. Each electron orbit is equivalent to a
tiny current loop and behaves as an elementary magnet having a magnetic dipole moment. The
total orbital magnetic moment of an atom is the sum of orbital magnetic moments of
individual electrons.
2. The electron spin: Each electron is spinning about an axis through itself and this spin also
gives rise to a magnetic dipole moment.
3. The nuclear spin: In addition to electronic contribution, nuclear spin also contributes to
magnetic moment of atoms. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is about 1/2000 of the
magnetic moment of electron. Therefore, in studying magnetic properties of solids, the
magnetic moment due to nuclear spin is neglected.

In general, the resulting magnetic moment of an atom is the sum of the orbital and spin magnetic
moments of its electrons. The major contribution to atomic magnetic moment comes from the spin
of unpaired valence electrons. A number of such magnetic moments may align themselves in
different directions to generate a net non-zero magnetic moment. When the substance is placed in
a magnetic field, the atomic dipoles are aligned with their directions of magnetic moment along the
direction of the external field. Thus, the material is magnetized.
 Bohr Magneton

Bohr magneton is the elementary electron magnetic moment. It is

elementary in the sense that no electron can have a magnetic moment
below it. It is the natural unit for the measurement of atomic magnetic
moments. It is denoted by µB.

It has a value µB = eh / 4π m = 9.28 × 10–24 A.m2

 Classification of magnetic materials
Solids are classified into three groups basing on the magnitude and sign of relative
permeability, µr exhibited by them.
Diamagnetic materials : µr < 1
Paramagnetic materials : µr > 1
Ferromagnetic materials : µr >> 1.
Alternatively, it has been found that the solids can be divided into two broad groups, on
the basis of magnetic dipole moments.
The atoms of one group do not possess permanent magnetic dipole moment whereas
atoms of the other group carry permanent magnetic dipole moment.
Diamagnetic materials are the materials consisting of atoms with zero magnetic dipole
moment.
Basing on the interaction of permanent magnetic dipoles, the second group is further
subdivided into the following four groups. (i) Paramagnetic materials (ii) Ferromagnetic
materials (iii) Antiferromagnetic materials and (iv) Ferrimagnetic materials
• Materials composed of atoms or molecules having permanent magnetic moment are
classified into four categories depending on the interaction between the atomic
magnetic dipoles.
• If the interaction between the atomic magnetic dipoles is negligible, the material is
paramagnetic.
• If the magnetic dipoles interact in such a way that they tend to orient in the same
direction, the material is ferromagnetic.
• If neighboring dipoles orient in opposite directions and if the dipoles are of equal
magnitude, the material is antiferromagnetic.
• If the neighboring dipoles are of different magnitude and orient antiparallel, the
material is ferrimagnetic.
Diamagnetic materials
• Diamagnetic materials exhibit negative magnetic susceptibility. The
magnetization M in diamagnetic materials is directed opposite to the
direction of the applied magnetic field, H and hence the susceptibility is
negative. The absolute value of susceptibility is small and is of the order of
10–6.
• As diamagnetic susceptibility is negative, the relative permeability µr is
slightly less than unity (µr < 1).
• Diamagnetic materials are substances that are repelled by a magnetic field.
• The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is practically
independent of temperature.
• The magnetization, M is a linear function of magnetic field H.
 Paramagnetic materials
• Paramagnetic materials are substances which when placed in a
magnetic field acquire feeble magnetism in the direction of the
magnetic field.
• Oxygen, solutions of iron salts, copper chloride, chromium and
platinum are examples of paramagnetic materials.
• The salient features of paramagnetic materials are as follows:
1. Paramagnetic materials exhibit positive magnetic susceptibility.
2. The relative permeability µr is slightly more than unity (µr > 1) for
paramagnetic materials. Field lines are pulled towards the material
and permeate through it when it is placed in a magnetic field, as
illustrated in Fig.
3. When a rod of paramagnetic material is freely suspended in a
magnetic field, it aligns itself along the lines of induction.
4. The magnetization, M is a linear function of the magnetic field H,
when the field is not too strong.
5. The paramagnetic susceptibility is strongly dependent on
temperature. Pierre Curie discovered in 1895 that the susceptibility of
a paramagnetic substance varies inversely with the temperature.
The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the absence of an external magnetic field. Therefore, the net
magnetization of the material is equal to zero.

When the material is subjected to the influence of magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles tend to align in the direction
of the field and the material becomes magnetized.

The thermal agitation tends to counteract the orientation of dipoles. When the temperature is increased, the thermal
agitation increases and the alignment of dipoles becomes more and more difficult. Therefore, the magnetization and
hence susceptibility of paramagnetic materials decrease with an increase in the temperature.
 FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
• Ferromagnetic materials are metallic crystals which when placed in a
magnetic field become strongly magnetized in the direction of the field.
• Iron, nickel and some steels are examples of ferromagnetic materials.
• The experiments of Einstein and de Haas showed that the spin magnetic
moments of electrons are responsible for ferromagnetism.
 Salient features of ferromagnetic materials

1. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit very high

values of magnetic susceptibility and relative
permeability. Susceptibilities as large as 106 and
relative permeability of the order of a few
thousands are common.
2. When a ferromagnetic material is kept in a
magnetic field, the field lines crowd into the
material.
3. Magnetization of a ferromagnetic material
does not vary linearly with the applied field H.
4. The permeability of a ferromagnetic material
does not have a constant value.
5. The specific properties of a ferromagnetic material
manifest only in the crystalline state at temperatures
lower than a certain temperature.
6. The ferromagnetic properties of crystals are found to be
dependent on the direction of magnetization.
7. Ferromagnetic materials are characterized by a definite
temperature TC, called the Curie temperature, above which
ferromagnetic behavior disappears.
The saturation magnetization is a maximum at 0 K in the
material. It diminishes gradually with increasing
temperature and abruptly drops to zero at the Curie
temperature, as shown in Fig.
The ferromagnetic behavior vanishes beyond TC and the
material transforms into a paramagnetic material. It is a
reversible transition.
When the material is cooled back through TC, the
ferromagnetic character reappears.
The disappearance of ferromagnetic character at Tc is not
accompanied by changes in the crystal lattice. The lattice
is not broken up but changes its type of symmetry.
Well above the Curie temperature TC, the
magnetic susceptibility of the paramagnetic
state obeys Curie –Weiss law
Which is paramagnetic among the two?
What are your additional observations?
Hysteresis, retentivity, and coercivity:
A typical property of ferromagnetic materials is hysteresis. Hysteresis
may be defined as the lag in the changes of magnetization behind
variations of the magnetic field. Because of hysteresis, the
magnetization of ferromagnetic material depends not only on the
strength of the magnetizing field at the given instant but also on the
magnetization history of the material.

Saturation flux density Bs

Saturation Magnetization Ms
Lagging of B behind H

Residual magnetism and retentivity / remanence

The retentivity of a material is a measure of the magnetic flux density
remaining in the material when the magnetizing field is removed.

Reversal of magnetic field;

Coercivity is a measure of the magnetic field strength required to
destroy the residual magnetism in the material.

Negative remanence –Br and positive coercivity + Hc

 Weiss theory of ferromagnetism
In 1907, P. Weiss proposed the molecular field theory to explain qualitatively the
salient features of ferromagnetism.

A macroscopic ferromagnetic specimen is divided up into small regions called

domains.

In a non-magnetized specimen, the directions of the magnetic moments of the

domains are distributed randomly so that the material as a whole will have a zero
magnetization.

Spontaneous Magnetization:
Weiss postulated that an internal molecular field causes a parallel alignment of
magnetic dipoles and sets up spontaneous magnetization in a ferromagnetic
material.

The spontaneous magnetization exists in the material only below the Curie
temperature, TC.

The magnetization in the material is a maximum temperature at 0 K and

decreases with increase in temperature. It falls off rapidly to zero value at TC.
Each domain is at all times spontaneously magnetized to
saturation and has a definite magnetic moment.

In the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetic

moment vectors of the separate domains are oriented in all
probable directions so that the net magnetic moment of the
entire body equals to zero.

When a magnetic field is applied, the magnetization of the

material takes place through two processes.

In weak fields, domains, which are favorably oriented with

respect to the applied field, increase their volume (grow in size) at
the expense of unfavorably oriented domains.

In strong fields, domains rotate in an attempt to align their

magnetic moments with the field direction .
 Weiss postulated that in ferromagnetic materials the internal molecular field is responsible for lining up of
dipoles in the same direction. The internal field Hi is given by

NOT FOR EXAMINATION

 NOT FOR EXAMINATION

It is obvious from the equation that the

value of magnetization tends to infinity
at T = θ (i.e. TC).

It means that the interactions of the

individual magnetic moments reinforce
each other causing them to align parallel
at T = θ.
 Hysterisis based on domains
• Hysteresis effect observed in
ferromagnetic materials can be
explained on the basis of ferromagnetic
domains. In the absence of a magnetic H=0
field, the domains in the material are
randomly directed and the resultant
magnetic moment is equal to zero.
• When the material is placed in a
magnetic field H, the orientations of the
magnetization vectors of various
domains with respect to the magnetic
field direction are different.
• It is seen that the magnetization vector
of the first domain forms the smallest
angle H. With an increase in H, the
growth of the most favorably oriented
domain 1 becomes energetically
advantageous. Therefore, domain 1
grows at the expense of its neighbor
domains by sidewise motion of domain
walls. Domain 1 grows until the whole
crystal becomes a single domain.
• Fig. shows the magnetization curve for a single crystal. As
the applied field is increased, magnetization proceeds along
the curve OAB. The portion OA of the curve corresponds to
the stage of wall motion. A further increase in the field
strength causes the onset of rotation of domain moments
into the field direction. The process of magnetization goes
on more slowly in this direction. The magnetization at this
stage reaches technical saturation. It occurs along the AB
portion of the curve.
• Beyond B, the growth of magnetization with H is very slow.
In the single domain formed under the action of the
magnetic field, the individual magnetic moment alignment
would not be complete due to the disturbing effect of
temperature. An increasing H prevails over the thermal
disturbance and tends to orient atomic dipoles.
• When the magnetic field is reduced back to zero, the
magnetization curve does not retrace the initial curve BAO.
The failure to retrace the original path is due to irreversible
processes occurring in the course of demagnetization.
• Various defects such as impurity atoms, dislocations and
nonmagnetic inclusions present in the material have a
strong effect on the domain wall motion. They may aid or
hinder the domain wall motion. During the course of
demagnetization some walls may get stuck up. Consequently,
the domains magnetized along the field direction retain their
former orientation even after the applied field is made zero.
It leads to remanent induction Br. Elimination of the
remanent magnetization requires the application of H (=
HC) in opposite direction.
 HYSTERISIS LOSS
• When a ferromagnetic specimen is magnetized by keeping it in an external magnetic field, those domains in the
specimen that are favorably oriented with respect to the external field grow in size, and also each domain rotates
as a single unit such that its direction of magnetization becomes aligned with the field direction.
• Energy is consumed in this process of domain growth and rotation.
• When the external field is removed, the domain boundaries do not move back to their original positions and the
specimen is left with some magnetization. It means that the energy supplied to the specimen during
magnetization is not fully recovered. The difference of energy is lost as heat in the material. This is known as
hysteresis loss.
• It is calculated that Energy dissipated per cycle of magnetization

HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Soft magnetic materials
• Magnetic materials, which are easily magnetized and
demagnetized are known as soft magnetic materials.
• Thin hysteresis loop
• High initial permeabilty
• Low coercivity
• the material reaches its saturation magnetization with a relatively
low applied field, and exhibits low hysteresis energy losses.
• Alternating current and high frequency applications
• Low coercivity – Ease of domain wall motion.
• Structural defects impede the domain wall motion and increase
coercivity
• Eddy current losses occur when the magnetic flux through the
material is varied.
• resistivity of ferromagnetic materials is very low in their pure form
• Applications: Square loop materials, Heavy and light duty flux
multipliers, microwave system components
Hard magnetic materials
Possess high resistance to demagnetization

A high remanence, high permeability, a high coercive field and a large hysteresis
loop characterize the hard magnetic materials.

The hard magnetic materials are magnetized in a magnetic field strong enough
to orient the magnetic moments of their domains in the direction of the applied
field.

Part of the energy of the applied field is converted into potential energy, which
is stored in the permanent magnet produced.

A permanent magnet in the fully magnetized condition is thus in a relatively

high-energy state as compared to a demagnetized state.

The power or external energy of a hard magnetic material is directly related to

the size of its hysteresis loop.

The magnetic potential energy of a hard material is measured by its maximum

energy product (BH)max.