Session

on

Electrical Measurements and Transducers

Presented By

Dr. Abhisek Parida

Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering
Institute of Technology
Nirma University

Institute of Technology (Electrical Engineering), Nirma University, Ahmedabad

Introduction
 Measurement: Measurement is a process by which one can convert physical
parameters into meaningful number.

 This is done by comparing the unknown quantity (called as measurand) against a

standard.
 Two Basic requirements of Measurement:

 The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately

defined and should be commonly accepted.

 The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

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Introduction
 Standards: A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of
measurement.

Classification of
Standards

International Primary Secondary Working

Standards Standards Standards Standards

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Introduction
 International Standards:

 Primary Standards:

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Introduction
 Secondary Standards:

 Working Standards:

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Introduction
 Unit: The standard measurement of any physical quantity is known as Unit.

 The number of times the unit occurs in any given amount of the same quantity is the
number of measure.

 e.g.: 100 m means the 100 times the unit of length (which is metre (m)).

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Introduction

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Methods of Measurement
 Methods of Measurement:

 Direct Methods
 Indirect Methods

 Direct Methods: In this method, the unknown quantity is directly compared against a
standard.

 Direct methods of measurement can be of two types: deflection method and

comparison method.
 Indirect Methods: This method of measurement is employed when the parameter to be
measured is difficult or not feasible to be measured directly.
 E.g.:
 Strain can be measured in terms of electrical resistance of the bar.
 Elimination of bacteria from a fluid can be measured indirectly by measuring
the temperature of the fluid.
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Measurement System and It’s Elements
 Measurement System: A measurement system is a systematic arrangement for the
measurement or determination of an unknown quantity and analysis of
instrumentation.

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Instruments
 Instrument: The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or a standard quantity is called a measuring instrument.

Fig.: Classification of
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Absolute and Secondary Instruments
 Absolute Instruments: In absolute instrument, the measured value is given in terms of
instrument constant and its deflection.

 They do not require comparison with any other standard.

 e.g.: Tangent galvanometer: It gives the value of

the current to be measured in terms of tangent of
the angle of deflection produced, the horizontal
component of the earth’s magnetic field, the radius
and the number of turns of the wire used.

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Absolute and Secondary Instruments
 Secondary Instruments: In secondary instrument, the quantity of the measured values
is obtained directly by observing the output indicated by the instruments.

 Secondary instruments are commonly used because working with absolute

instruments is time-consuming.
 Indicating Instruments: The magnitude of quantity being measured is obtained by
deflection of pointer on scale. E.g.: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter etc.
 In indicating instruments 3 types of force result in deflection of the pointer
proportional to the quantity being measured:
 Deflecting Force: This force gives the pointer the initial force to move
from zero position.
 Controlling Force: This force limits the deflection of the pointer which
must be proportional to the measured value.
 Damping Force: This force is necessary to bring the pointer quickly to
the measured value and stop without oscillation.
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Absolute and Secondary Instruments
 Recording Instruments: These instruments keep a continuous record of the variation
of magnitude of the measured quantity over a period of time.
 E.g.: Oscilloscope, Richter scale etc.

 Integrating Instruments: These instruments neither provide instantaneous value nor

maintain record of the quantity, but they integrate or sum up the quantity under
measurement.
 E.g.: Energy meter, Ampere-hour meter etc.

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Characteristics of Measurement Systems
The characteristics of the system when the input
is either held constant or varying very slowly.

Static Error

The characteristics of the system

when the input varies rapidly with
time.

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Static Characteristics
1. Accuracy: Accuracy is the closeness with which the instrument reading approaches
the true value of the variable under measurement.

 Accuracy determines the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true
value.

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Static Characteristics
2. Precision: Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements.

 i.e. Precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ

from one another.

 Precision is composed of two characteristics:

 Conformity
 Significant Figures

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Static Characteristics
 Conformity:

 Significant Figures: Significant figures convey actual information regarding the

magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity.

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Static Characteristics
3. Resolution: The smallest change in input signal (quantity under measurement) which
can be detected by the instrument is called resolution or discrimination.

4. Dead Zone: The largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument is called dead zone .

5. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of output signal (or response of the
instrument) to a change of input signal (or quantity under measurement).

6. Hysteresis: It is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when loading

and unloading.
e.g.: relation between output voltage and field current in a d.c. generator.

7. Static Error: This error shows the deviation of the true value from the desired value.

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Static Characteristics
8. Drift: The gradual shift in the indication or record of the instrument over an extended
period of time.

Zero Drift: If the whole calibration is Span Drift: If there is proportional

shifted by the same amount due to change in t h e i n d i c a t i o n a l l a l o n g
slippage or due to undue warming up of upward scale, the drift is called span
tube of electronic tube circuits, zero drift or sensitivity drift. Hence higher
drift sets in. calibrations get shifted more than lower
Zero setting can prevent this. Electrical Measurement
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and Transducers 20
Numerical

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Numerical
Q. A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and gives a full scale
reading of 5 A. The instrument can read up to (1/4)th of a scale division with a fair
degree of certainty. Determine the resolution of the instrument (in mA).

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Numerical
Q. A digital voltmeter has a read-out reading from 0 to 9,999 counts. Determine the
resolution of the instrument in volt when the full scale reading is 9.999 V.

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Numerical
Q. The dead zone in a certain pyrometer is 0.125 percent of span. The calibration is 400o
C to 1000o C. What temperature change might occur before it is detected?

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Dynamic Characteristics
1. Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
a change in measured quantity.
It indicates how active and fast the system is.

2. Fidelity: It is the ability of a measurement system to reproduce the output in the

same form as the input without any dynamic error.
e.g.: If the input to the system is a sine wave, the system is said to have 100% fidelity if
the output also is a sine wave.

3. Dynamic Error: The difference between true value of the measured quantity to the
value shown by the measuring instrument under varying conditions.

4. Measuring Lag: The retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to

changes in the measured quantity.

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Measurement Error

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Absolute Error and Relative Error
 Absolute Error: The difference between the measured value and the true value of the
variable.

 Relative Error: The ratio of the absolute error to the true value of the quantity to be
measured.

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Absolute Error and Relative Error

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Numerical

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Numerical
Q. A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43 V. Determine: (a)
Static Error (b) static correction for this instrument.

Q. A thermometer reads 95.450 C and the static correction given in the correction curve
is -0.080 C. Determine the true value of the temperature.

Q.
Ans.

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Thank You