Ansh Bhawnani

Introduction to Networking

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 Networking
Computer network A collection of
computing devices that are connected in
various ways in order to communicate and
share resources
Usually, the connections between
computers in a network are made using
physical wires or cables
However, some connections are wireless,
using radio waves or infrared signals

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 Networking
The generic term node or host refers to any device on a network
Data transfer rate The speed with which data is moved from one
place on a network to another
Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer networks

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 Networking
Computer networks have opened up an entire frontier in the
world of computing called the client/server model

Figure 15.1 Client/Server interaction

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Networking
File server A computer that stores and manages files for
multiple users on a network
Web server A computer dedicated to responding to
requests (from the browser client) for web pages

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Types of Networks
Local-area network (LAN) A network that connects a
relatively small number of machines in a relatively close
geographical area

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Types of Networks
Various configurations, called topologies, have been used to
administer LANs
◦ Ring topology A configuration that connects all nodes in a closed loop on
which messages travel in one direction
◦ Star topology A configuration that centers around one node to which all
others are connected and through which all messages are sent
◦ Bus topology All nodes are connected to a single communication line that
carries messages in both directions

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 Types of Networks

Figure 15.2 Various network topologies

A bus technology called Ethernet has become the industry standard for local-
area networks
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Types of Networks
Wide-area network (WAN) A network that connects two or more
local-area networks over a potentially large geographic distance
Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a gateway to handle
all communication going between that LAN and other networks
Communication between networks is called internetworking
The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the ultimate wide-area
network, spanning the entire globe

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Types of Networks
Metropolitan-area network
(MAN) The communication
infrastructures that have
been developed in and
around large cities

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So, who owns the Internet?
Well, nobody does. No single person
or company owns the Internet or
even controls it entirely. As a wide-
area network, it is made up of many
smaller networks. These smaller
networks are often owned and
managed by a person or organization.
The Internet, then, is really defined
by how connections can be made
between these networks.

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Types of Networks

Figure 15.1 Local-area networks connected across a distance to

create a wide-area network

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Internet Connections
Internet backbone A set of high-speed
networks that carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by
companies such as AT&T, GTE, and
IBM.
Internet service provider (ISP) A
company that provides other
companies or individuals with access to
the Internet

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Internet Connections
There are various technologies available that you can use to connect a home
computer to the Internet
◦ A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio signal for transfer over a
telephone line, and then a modem at the destination converts it back again into data
◦ A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone lines to transfer digital data to
and from the phone company’s central office
◦ A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV signals come in on to transfer the
data back and forth

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Internet Connections
Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds are faster than
128 bits per second
◦ DSL connections and cable modems are broadband connections
◦ The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet to your home
computer) may not be the same as uploads (sending data from your home
computer to the Internet)

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 Network Devices
HUB: Hubs connect computers Repeater: A repeater is an electronic Modem: Modem (from modulator-
together in a star topology network. device that receives a signal and demodulator) is a device that turns
Due to their design, they increase retransmits it at a higher level and/or the digital 1s and 0s of a personal
the chances for collisions. Hubs higher power, or onto the other side computer into sounds that can be
operate in the physical layer of of an obstruction, so that the signal transmitted over the telephone lines
the OSI model and have no can cover longer distances without and once received on the other side,
intelligence. Hubs flood incoming degradation. converts those sounds back into a
packets to all ports all the time. form used by a USB, Ethernet, serial,
or network connection. Modems are
generally classified by the amount of
data they can send in a given time,
normally measured in bits per
second, or "bps".

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Network Devices
NIC: A network interface card is a computer
hardware component designed to allow computers
to communicate over a computer network. It is
both an OSI layer 1 and layer 2 device, as it
provides physical access to a networking medium
and provides a low-level addressing system through
the use of MAC addresses.

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Network Devices
Switches: Switches provide a central connection
between two or more computers on a network, but with
some intelligence. They provide traffic control for packets;
rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a
switch forwards data only to the port on which the
destination system is connected. They use a database
of MAC addresses to determine where computers are
located and very efficiently send packets only where they
need to go.

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Network Devices
Bridge: Bridges can be identified by the fact that
they operate at the data link layer of the OSI model.
Bridges have intelligence and can "bridge" two of
their ports together at very high speed. They use a
database of MAC addresses to determine where
computers are located and very efficiently send
frames only where they need to go. The database is
created dynamically as computers communicate on
the network.

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Network Devices
Routers: Routers operate at the network layer of
the OSI model and efficiently route information
between Local Area Networks. Since routers
operate in the third layer, the network layer, they
must understand layer 3 addressing... such
as TCP/IP. A router will divide a broadcast domain
by not forwarding broadcasts on one connected
network to another connected network.

Gateways: They basically works as the

messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways are also called protocol converters and
can operate at any network layer

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Network Devices
Wireless Access Point: A wireless access
point (WAP or AP) is a device that allows wireless
communication devices to connect to a wireless
network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related
standards. The WAP usually connects to a wired
network, and can relay data between the wireless
devices (such as computers or printers) and wired
devices on the network.

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Switching
A network consists of many switching
devices. In order to connect multiple
devices, one solution could be to have a
point to point connection in between pair of
devices. But this increases the number of
connection.

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Switching
The other solution could be to have a
central device and connect every
device to each other via the central
device which is generally known as
Star Topology. A switched network is
made up of a series of interconnected
nodes called switches.

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Types of Switching

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Message Switching
Here each message is treated as an independent unit and includes its own
destination source address by its own. Each complete message is then
transmitted from one device to another through inter network.
Each intermediate device receive the message and store it until the next device
is ready to receive it. For this reason a message switching network is sometimes
called as Store and Forward Switching.

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Message Switching

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Message Switching
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• More devices share the same channel • Not compatible for voice and video
• Congestion can be reduced • Costly as store and forward devices are
• Supports message lengths of unlimited expensive
size • Can lead to security issues if hacked
•Not reliable

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Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching is generally used in the public networks. It come into existence
for handling voice traffic in addition to digital data.
After the link has been sets in between the sender and the receiver then the
information is forwarded continuously over the provided link.
A dedicated link/path is established across the sender and the receiver which is
maintained for the entire duration of conversation.

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Circuit Switching

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Circuit Switching
Advantages:
• Guaranteed data rate.
• No waiting time at each switch.
• Suitable for long continuous transmission.

Disadvantages:
• Other nodes cannot use same channel.
• Require more bandwidth.
• Time required to establish a physical link is too long.

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Packet Switching
To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a
shared communication line, messages are divided into fixed-
sized, numbered packets
Network devices called routers are used to direct packets
between networks
Figure 15.4
Messages
sent by
packet
switching

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Packet Switching
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Efficient use of Network. • Order mismatch
• High Data Transmission • Transmission delay
• No big memory required • Packet loss
• No dedicated path required • Implementation cost
• Security issues
• Suitable for video/voice calls
• Less usage cost

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Transmission Media
Guided Unguided

• Twisted-Pair Cable • Radio Waves

• Coaxial Cable • Microwaves
• Fiber-Optic Cable • Infrared

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Transmission Media
Twisted Pair Cable

Pairs of wires (the forward and return

conductors of a single circuit) are twisted
together for the purposes of canceling
out electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from other wire pairs and from external
sources

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Transmission Media
Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option
for school networks

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Transmission Media

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Transmission Media
Twisted Pair Cable
Advantages
• Cheap
• Easy to work with

Disadvantages
• Low data rate
• Short range

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 Transmission Media
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable

specially built with a metal shield and other
components engineered to block signal
interference. It is primarily used by cable TV
companies to connect their satellite
antenna facilities to customer homes and
businesses.

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Transmission Media
Coaxial Cable
Advantages Disadvantages
• Used in high frequency applications • Bulky, thick, stiff
• Improve attenuation and shield • Expensive to install
effectiveness • Security issue
• less susceptible to noise or interference • Grounding necessary
compare to twisted pair cable.
• high bandwidth
• Cost of coaxial cable is less

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Transmission Media
Optical Fiber Cable

Optical cables are used to transfer digital

data signals in the form of light up to
distances of hundreds of miles with higher
throughput rates.

Two common types of fiber optics are:

Single-mode fiber (SMF)
Multi-mode fiber (MMF)
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Transmission Media
Optical Fiber Cable
Advantages Disadvantages
• Extremely High Bandwidth • Cost
• Thinner and Light-weighted • Very fragile
• Resistance to Electromagnetic • Difficult to Install
Interference • Attenuation & Dispersion
• Longer Distance
• Low Security Risk

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Open Systems
Proprietary system A system that uses technologies kept private by
a particular commercial vendor
One system couldn’t communicate with another, leading to the need for
Interoperability The ability of software and hardware on multiple
machines and from multiple commercial vendors to communicate
Leading to
Open systems Systems based on a common model of network
architecture and a suite of protocols used in its implementation

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Open Systems
The International
Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
established the Open
Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Reference Model
Each layer deals with a
particular aspect of network
communication
Figure 15.5 The layers of the OSI Reference Model

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Open Systems
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) established the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
Each layer deals with a particular aspect of network communication

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Communication Architecture
Strategy for connecting host computers and other communicating
equipment.
Defines necessary elements for data communication between devices.
A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the
communicating hosts.
A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication
architecture and passes it on to the communication software.
Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do
not need to modify the entire host software to include more
communication devices.

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The OSI Reference Model
The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for
inter-computer communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application programme located on
another network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information
between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and
more manageable problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as
layering.
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The OSI Reference Model

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Layer 7: Application Layer
The top layer of the OSI model
Provides a set of interfaces for sending and receiving applications and to
use network services, such as: message handling and database query
processing
Responsibility: The application layer is responsible for providing services
to the user.
Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer,
electronic mail, remote login etc.

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Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Manages data-format information for networked communications (the
network’s translator)
For outgoing messages, it converts data into a generic format for
network transmission; for incoming messages, it converts data from the
generic network format to a format that the receiving application can
understand
This layer is also responsible for certain protocol conversions, data
encryption/decryption, or data compression/decompression
A special software facility called a “redirector” operates at this layer to
determine if a request is network related on not and forward network-
related requests to an appropriate network resource
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Layer 5: Session Layer
Enables two networked resources to hold ongoing communications
(called a session) across a network (dialog session)
Applications on either end of the session are able to exchange data for
the duration of the session
This layer is:
Responsible for initiating, maintaining and terminating sessions
Responsible for security and access control to session information (via
session participant identification)
Responsible for synchronization services, and for checkpoint services

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Layer 4: Transport Layer
Manages the transmission of data across a network
Manages the flow of data between parties by segmenting long data
streams into smaller data chunks (based on allowed “packet” size for a
given transmission medium)
Reassembles chunks into their original sequence at the receiving end
Provides acknowledgements of successful transmissions and requests
resends for packets which arrive with errors
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.

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Layer 3: Network Layer
Handles addressing messages for delivery, as well as translating logical
network addresses and names into their physical counterparts
Responsible for deciding how to route transmissions between
computers
This layer also handles the decisions needed to get data from one point
to the next point along a network path
This layer also handles packet switching and network congestion control

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Layer 2: Data Link Layer
Handles special data frames (packets) between the Network layer and
the Physical layer
At the receiving end, this layer packages raw data from the physical
layer into data frames for delivery to the Network layer
At the sending end this layer handles conversion of data into raw
formats that can be handled by the Physical Layer

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Layer 1: Physical Layer
Converts bits into electronic signals for outgoing messages
Converts electronic signals into bits for incoming messages
This layer manages the interface between the the computer and the
network medium (coax, twisted pair, etc.)
This layer tells the driver software for the MAU (media attachment unit,
ex. network interface cards (NICs, modems, etc.)) what needs to be sent
across the medium
The bottom layer of the OSI model
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next.
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OSI Model: Summary

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OSI Model: In Action

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OSI Model: In Action

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OSI Model: In Action

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The TCP/IP Model
 The TCP/IP model is the network model used in the current Internet
architecture.
 It is a concise version of the OSI Model. Therefore, the layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not match exactly with those in the OSI
model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware.
 Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with the
layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI model.

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The TCP/IP Model

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The TCP/IP Model

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TCP/IP vs. OSI

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TCP/IP vs. OSI

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The TCP/IP Protocol Stack

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The Internet Protocol (IP)
 Data is transferred in the form of packets via logical network paths in an
ordered format controlled by the network layer.

 It does this by forwarding packets to network routers, which rely on

algorithms to determine the best paths for the data to travel. These paths are
known as virtual circuits.

 The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent
from one computer to another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a
host) on the Internet has at least one IP address that uniquely identifies it
from all other computers on the Internet.

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The Internet Protocol (IP)
 A message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary,
be sent by a different route across the Internet. Packets can arrive in a
different order than the order they were sent in.

Basic Transfer Unit of data:

 The most widely used version of IP today is Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4).
However, IP Version 6 (IPv6) is also beginning to be supported.

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The IP Datagram
 A datagram is “a self-contained, independent entity of data carrying
sufficient information to be routed from the source to the destination
computer without reliance on earlier exchanges between this source and
destination computer and the transporting network.”

 The term “datagram” has become synonymous with the term “packet.”

 The information regarding the packet’s destination and interpretation is in its

header.

 The data portion which follows is variable in size.

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The IP Datagram
 A packet should be
 Independent of the specifics of the network it is on
 Independent of the specifics of the path it has traveled thus far
 Understandable to any router along the way or the destination host’s IP
layer

 The IP protocol makes a “best-effort” to deliver the packets. It does NOT

handle
 datagram duplication (because of retransmission)
 delayed or out-of-order delivery
 corruption of data
 datagram loss
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The IPv4 Header Format

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The IPv4 Header Format
1. Version- 2. Header Length-

 Version is a 4 bit field that  Header length is a 4 bit field that

indicates the IP version used. contains the length of the IP
 The most popularly used IP header.
versions are version-4 (IPv4) and  It helps in knowing from where
version-6 (IPv6). the actual data begins.
 If it is an IPv4 header, it’s value  Header length = Header length
will be 4, and for IPV6 it’s value field value x 4 bytes
will be 6.

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The IPv4 Header Format
2. Header Length- 3. Type Of Service-

 The initial 5 rows of the IP header  Type of service is a 8 bit field that
are always used. is used for Quality of Service
 So, minimum length of IP header (QoS).
= 5 x 4 bytes = 20 bytes.  How the datagram should be
 The size of Options field can go used, e.g. delay, precedence,
up to 40 bytes. reliability, minimum cost,
 So, maximum length of IP header throughput etc.
= 20 bytes + 40 bytes = 60 bytes.  Also called the Differentaited
Services Code Point (DSCP).

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The IPv4 Header Format
4. Total Length- 5. Identification-

 Total length is a 16 bit field that  Identification is a 16 bit field.

contains the total length of the  It is used for the identification of
datagram (in bytes). the fragments of an original IP
 Minimum total length of datagram.
datagram = 20 bytes (20 bytes  When an IP datagram is
header + 0 bytes data) fragmented, each fragmented
 Maximum total length of datagram is assigned the same
datagram = Maximum value of 16 identification number.
bit word = 65535 bytes

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The IPv4 Header Format
6. DF Bit- 7. MF Bit-

 Do Not Fragment bit.  More Fragments bit.

 When DF bit is set to 0, it grants  MF bit is set to 0, indicates that
the permission to the current datagram is either the
intermediate devices can last fragment or the only
fragment the datagram fragment.
 DF bit is set to 1, indicates the  MF bit is set to 1, indicates that
intermediate devices not to the current datagram is a
fragment the IP datagram at any fragment of some larger
cost. datagram.

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The IPv4 Header Format
8. Fragment Offset 9. Time To Live-

 Fragment Offset is a 13 bit field.  8 bit field.

 It indicates the position of a  It indicates the maximum
fragmented datagram in the number of hops a datagram can
original unfragmented IP take to reach the destination.
datagram.  If the value of TTL becomes zero
 Fragment offset for a given before reaching the destination,
fragmented datagram = Number then datagram is discarded.
of data bytes ahead of it in the  at the destination, TTL may be
original unfragmented datagram greater than or equal to zero.

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The IPv4 Header Format
10. Protocol- 11. Header Checksum-

 8 bit field.  16 bit field.

 It tells the network layer at the  It contains the checksum value of
destination host to which the entire header.
protocol the IP datagram belongs  The checksum value is used for
to. error checking of the header.
 Protocol number of ICMP is 1,  At each hop, the header
IGMP is 2, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17. checksum is compared with the
value contained in this field.

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The IPv4 Header Format
12. Source IP Address- 13. Destination IP Address-

 32 bit field.  32 bit field.

 It contains the logical address of  It contains the logical address of
the sender of the datagram. the receiver of the datagram.
 Format – 172.64.52.122 (dotted  Format – 172.64.52.122 (dotted
decimal) decimal)

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The IPv4 Header Format
14. Options- 14.1. Record route- A record route option
is used to record the IP Address of the routers
 Options is a field whose size vary through which the datagram passes on its way.
from 0 bytes to 40 bytes.
 This field is used for several 14.2. Source routing- A source routing
option is used to specify the route that the
purposes such as- datagram must take to reach the destination.
 Record route
 Source routing 14.3. Padding- Addition of dummy data to fill
 Padding up unused space in the transmission unit and
make it conform to the standard size is called as
padding.

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The IPv4 Header Format
The fields that may be modified are-

 TTL
 Options
 Datagram Length
 Header Length
 Fragment Offset

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The Internet Protocol version 6
 IPv6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the
problem of IP v4 exhaustion.

 IPv6 is 128-bits address having an address space of 2^128, which is way

bigger than IPv4. In IPv6 we use Colon-Hexa representation. There are 8
groups and each group represents 2 Bytes.

 In IPv6 representation, we have three addressing methods :

 Unicast
 Multicast
 Anycast

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The Internet Protocol version 6

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The Internet Protocol version 6
 Unicast Address: Unicast Address identifies a single network interface. A
packet sent to unicast address is delivered to the interface identified by that
address.
 Multicast Address: Multicast Address is used by multiple hosts, called as
Group, acquires a multicast destination address. If any packet is sent to this
multicast address, it will be distributed to all interfaces corresponding to that
multicast address.
 Anycast Address: Anycast Address is assigned to a group of interfaces. Any
packet sent to anycast address will be delivered to only one member
interface (mostly nearest host possible). Updates routing tables.
Note : Broadcast is not defined in IPv6.

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The Internet Protocol version 6
 Unicast Address  Multicast Address  Anycast Address

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The IPv6 Header Format

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The IPv6 Header Format
1. Version- 2. Traffic class-

 4 bits  8-bit
 Indicates version of Internet  Indicates class or priority of IPv6
Protocol which contains bit packet which is similar to Service
sequence 0110. Field in IPv4 packet.
 It helps routers to handle the
traffic based on priority of the
packet
 If congestion occurs packets with
least priority will be discarded.

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The IPv6 Header Format
3. Flow label- 4. Payload length-

 20 bits  16-bit
 Used by source to label the  indicates total size of the payload
packets belonging to the same (data + extension headers)
flow  If payload length > 65,535 bytes,
 Helps avoid re-ordering then jumbo header is used of
 to request special handling by extension headers
intermediate IPv6 routers, such
as non-default quality of service
or real time service

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The IPv6 Header Format
5. Next header- 6. Hop limit-

 8 bits  8-bit
 indicates type of extension  Analogous to TTL
header(if present) immediately  indicates the maximum number
following the IPv6 header of intermediate nodes IPv6
 In some cases indicates the packet is allowed to travel.
protocols contained within
upper-layer packet, such as TCP,
UDP.

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The IPv6 Header Format
7. Source address- 8. Destination address-

 16 bytes  16 bytes
 Source Address is 128-bit IPv6  IPv6 address of the final
address of the original source of destination(in most cases)
the packet  next router interface if routing
extension header is present

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The IPv6 Header Format
Extension Headers

 to rectify the limitations of IPv4 Option Field, Extension Headers are

introduced in IPv6.
 Next Header field of IPv6 fixed header points to the first Extension
Header and this first extension header points to the second extension
header and so on.

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The IPv6 Header Format
IPv6 packet may contain zero, one or more extension headers but these
should be present in their recommended order:

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The IPv6 Header Format
Conventions :

 Any extension header can appear at most once except Destination

Header because Destination Header is present two times in above list
itself.
 If Destination Header is present before Routing Header then it will be
examined by all intermediate nodes specified in routing header.
 If Destination Header is present just above Upper layer then it will be
examined only by Destination node.

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The IPv6 Header Format
Given order in which all extension header should be chained in IPv6 packet
and working of each extension header :

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IPv4 v/s IPv6
BASIS OF COMPARISON IPV4 IPV6

Address Configuration Supports Manual and DHCP Supports Auto-configuration and

configuration. renumbering

Addressing Scheme Class division (A,B,C) Achieved by subnetting

Address Space It can generate 4.29 x It can produce quite a large number
9 38
10 addresses. of addresses, i.e., 3.4 x 10 .

Security features Security is dependent on IPSEC is inbuilt in the IPv6 protocol

application

Address length 32 bits (4 bytes) 128 bits (16 bytes)

Address Representation In decimal In hexadecimal

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IPv4 v/s IPv6
BASIS OF COMPARISON IPV4 IPV6
Fragmentation performed by Sender and forwarding routers Only by the sender

Packet flow identification Not available Available and uses flow label field in
the header

Checksum Field Available Not available

Message Transmission Scheme Broadcasting Multicasting and Anycasting

Header length Variable, 20-60 bytes Fixed, 40 bytes

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IPv4 v/s IPv6
BASIS OF COMPARISON IPV4 IPV6

Uses ARP(Address Resolution Uses NDP(Neighbour Discovery

Mapping
Protocol) to map to MAC address Protocol) to map to MAC address
IPv6 address is represented in
IPv4 address uses the dot-decimal
hexadecimal, colon- separated
Combability with mobile devices notation. That's why it is not
notation. IPv6 is better suited to
suitable for mobile networks.
mobile networks.
IP to MAC resolution Broadcast ARP Multicast Neighbour Solicitation

Widespread use of NAT devices

which allows single NAT address
It allows direct addressing because
Best feature can mask thousands of non-
of vast address Space.
routable addresses, making end-to-
end integrity achievable.

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MIME Types
Related to the idea of network protocols and standardization is the concept of a file’s MIME type
◦ MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension
◦ Based on a document’s MIME type, an application program can decide how to deal with the data it is
given

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MIME Types

Figure 15.7
Some protocols
and the ports
they use

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Firewalls
Firewall A machine and its software that serve as a special gateway to a network, protecting it
from inappropriate access
◦ Filters the network traffic that comes in, checking the validity of the messages as much as possible and
perhaps denying some messages altogether
◦ Enforces an organization’s access control policy

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Firewalls

Figure 15.8 A firewall protecting a LAN 15-98

Network Addresses
Hostname A unique identification that specifies a particular computer on the Internet
For example
matisse.csc.villanova.edu
condor.develocorp.com

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Network Addresses
Network software translates a hostname into its corresponding IP address
For example
205.39.145.18

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Network Addresses
An IP address can be split into
◦ network address, which specifies a specific network
◦ host number, which specifies a particular machine in that network

Figure 15.9
An IP address is
stored in four
bytes

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Domain Name System
A hostname consists of the computer name followed by the domain
name
csc.villanova.edu is the domain name
◦ A domain name is separated into two or more sections that specify the
organization, and possibly a subset of an organization, of which the computer
is a part
◦ Two organizations can have a computer named the same thing because the
domain name makes it clear which one is being referred to

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Domain Name System
The very last section of the domain is called its top-level
domain (TLD) name

Figure 15.10 Top-level domains, including some relatively new ones 15-103
Domain Name System
Organizations based in countries other than the
United States use a top-level domain that
corresponds to their two-letter country codes

Figure 15.11
Some of the top-level domain
names based on country codes

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Domain Name System
The domain name system (DNS) is chiefly used to translate hostnames into numeric IP
addresses
◦ DNS is an example of a distributed database
◦ If that server can resolve the hostname, it does so
◦ If not, that server asks another domain name server

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