1. ST.

BRITTO’S ACADEMY SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

XII PRACTICALS 2024-25
PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
1.OHM’S LAW

2. METRE BRIDGE

3. RESISTANCE OF A GALVANOMETER BY HALF-DEFLECTION METHOD AND

FIGURE OF MERIT

4. SONOMETER – FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS

5. FOCAL LENTH OF CONVEX LENS

6. FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

7. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A LIQUID USING A CONVEX LENS AND PLANE

MIRROR.

8. JUNCTION DIODE – FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and
ammeter as shown in the circuit diagram
2. Note whether pointers in ammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the
measuring scale.
3. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Insert the key and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that current
passing through the resistance wire is minimum.
5. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
6. Remove the key and allow the wire to cool, Shift the rheostat contact slightly to
increase the applied voltage.
7. Plot the graph of current against the voltage. The slope of the graph gives the
resistance value of the unknown wire.
8. Now, calculate the resistivity of the material of the wire using the formula,

. Do the same for the second wire and calculate the resistivity.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the
circuit. It should be ensured that current enters at the positive terminal and leaves at the
negative terminal
2. Zero error in measuring instruments should be noted.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The connections may be loose.
2. The ratio V/I may not be constant due to heating caused by continuous passage of
current.

RESULT:
1. Resistance of the wire 1(from graph) = ______________ Ω

2. Resistance of the wire 2(from graph) = _____________ Ω

3. Resistivity of wire 1 = _____________ Ωm.

4. Resistivity of wire 2 = _____________ Ωm.

 METER BRIDGE – RESISTANCE OF WIRE
Aim:
To find resistance of a given wire using Metre Bridge.
Apparatus:
A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer,
a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a metre scale,
connecting wires.
Formula:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

Ω
where,
R, known resistance placed in the left gap
X, unknown resistance, in the right gap of metre bridge.
l cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

PROCEDURE:
 Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.
 Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop:
 Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
 Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
 Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
  Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in
opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only,
then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and
rectify the fault.
 Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point
D.
 Choose an appropriate value of 12 from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire
(i.e., between 45 cm to 55 cm).
 Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know length AD = l.
 Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of 12
in steps.
 Record your observations.
TABULATION
S. No Value of known Balancing 100-l Resistance
resistance, R in length, l (cm) Of the wire,
ohm (cm) S =R (100 −l)/l Ω
1
2
3
4
5
MEAN
CALCULATION:
RESULT:
The resistance of the given wire is ________________.
PRECAUTION:
1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may be error due to contact resistances.
2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
 SONOMETER – FREQUENCY OF AC
Aim:
To find the frequency of the AC mains with a sonometer.

Apparatus required:
Sonometer box, knife edges, paper rider, bar magnet, copper wire, weight hanger,
weights, magnet holder, AC frequency.

Hz

PROCEDURE:
1. The ends of the sonometer wire wire are connected to a suitable power supply of 6 V
A.C.
2. A magnet is held at the centre of the wire.
3. The wire is subjected to a suitable load of 0.1 kg
4. Two movable bridges are placed under the wire.
5. A paper rider is placed on the wire between the bridges.
6. The bridges are adjusted until the rider flutters and falls down now the distance
between the bridges is measured.
7. The same procedure is repeated again and distance L2 is measured. The average of L1
and L2 is calculated.
8. The experiment is repeated for different loads and the readings are tabulated.
9. The radius of the sonometer wire (r) is measured. The linear density of the wire is m =
 r 2 , where  is its density.
10. The frequency of the A.C main is calculated from the formula
RESULT:
The frequency of the AC mains with a sonometer = 50.16 Hz
PRECAUTIONS
 The wire should be of soft iron or of any other magnetic material.
 Tip of electromagnet should be very close to the wire in its middle.
SOURCES OF ERROR
 Pulley may not be frictionless.
 Weights may not be correct.
 The main frequency may not be stable.
 RESISTANCE OF A GALVANOMETER BY HALF-DEFLECTION METHOD AND
FIGURE OF MERIT
Aim
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.
Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω
and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale,
an ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
FORMULA:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
(A) RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION METHOD
 Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.
 See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
 Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the
key K only.
1

 Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within
the scale.
 Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
 Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such
that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in
step 5 i.e., θ/2.
 Note the value of resistance S.
 Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S
every time.
(B) FIGURE OF MERIT
 Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter
by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -
ve of the cell. Let it be E.
 Make connections as in circuit diagram.
 Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the
circuit is closed.
 Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
 Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
 Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2,
4, 6, 8, volts from battery eliminator.
 Find the figure of merit k using the formula.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
TABLE FOR RESISTANCE OF THE GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION METHOD

S. Resistance Deflection in Stunt Half Galvanometer

N R (ohm) the resistance deflection resistance
O Galvanometer S (ohm) 𝜽/𝟐
(𝜽)
(ohm)
1
2
3
4
MEAN

TABLE FOR FIGURE OF MERIT

S. Number of Emf of Resistance Deflection in Figure of

NO cells(battery the cells R (ohm) the merit
eliminator) E (V) Galvanometer
(𝜽) div X 10-5A/div
1.
2.
3.
4.
MEAN

RESULT:
1. The resistance of galvanometer is found to be ________ ohm.
2. Figure of merit of galvanometer is ____________ A/division.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.
2. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance.
 FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v.
APPARATUS:
Convex lens with lens holder, lamp source, white screen, metre scale.
FORMULA:

Where,
f= focal length of the convex lens, cm
u= the distance between an object and the convex lens, cm
v= the distance between the convex lens and the screen, cm
RAY DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

F=OA+OB/4
PROCEDURE:
DISTANCE OBJECT METHOD:
 Without disturbing the lens and screen, arrange both of them on the wooden
bench.
 Place the lens on the holder facing a distant object.
 Place the holder with the screen on the bench.
 The position of the screen should be such that the sharp image of the distant object
is obtained on it.
 The difference between the position of the lens and the screen is equal to the focal
length of the given convex lens.
UV – METHOD:
 Fix the given convex lens vertically on the stand and place it on the table.
 Place the wire gauze object on the left side of the convex lens (say at a distance
greater than 2f).
 Measure the distance between the object and the lens (u).
 Place the screen on the right side of the convex lens and adjust its position to get a
sharp, inverted and diminished image.
 Measure the distance between the screen and the lens (v).
 Repeat the same procedure, by changing the distance of the object (u) and tabulate
your observations.
TABULATION:
Focal length of convex lens F= cm 2F = cm
SIZE OF THE OBJECT IMAGE FOCAL
IMAGE DISTANCE DISTANCE LENGTH
U cm V cm F=UV/U+V cm
MAGNIFIED
>2F
SAME SIZE
DIMINISHED
<2F
MEAN F=
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

PRECAUTIONS
 The lens must be clean.
 The focal length of the convex lens should be lesser than the concave lens.
 For u and v index correction should be applied.
 To obtain a real and inverted image, the source should be kept at a certain
distance.
SOURCES OF ERROR
 Vertical uprights might not be used.
 The removal of parallax might not be perfect.
 SET 2
FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:
To find the focal length of a concave mirror by u-v method
MATERIAL USED:
Concave mirror, stand, screen, illuminated wire gauze, metre scale etc.
FORMULA:
Mirror formula is given as:
1/f=1/v+1/u cm
From the above equation, we get the focal length as:
f=uv/u+v cm
Where,
f is the focal length of a concave mirror, cm
u is the distance of object from the pole of the mirror, cm
v is the distance of image from the pole of the mirror, cm
The value of f will be negative. This is according to the sign-convention, u and v have
negative values.
RAY DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
 First we have to find the focal length of a mirror by distance object method.
 Fix the concave mirror on the stand and now put the stand in front of the screen in
such a way that the image of the object should be visible on screen.
 Adjust the mirror to get the clear image of an object.
 Measure the difference between mirror and the screen using a metre scale. The
length between screen and mirror is the focal length (f) of the mirror.
 Now by using the focal length obtained, say the value of you that is the distance
between mirror and object ranging from 1.5f to 2.5f now, divide the range into a
number of equal steps.
 Place the mirror in front of illuminated wire gauze and it will act as an object.
 Now fix the mirror at the distance you have which is equal to 1.5 f from the wire
gauze.
 Place the screen in front of a mirror in such a way that the reflection of the image
lies on the screen.
 Now it’s just the position of the screen to get the clear image of the wire gauze.
 Measure the distance between mirror and wire gauze (u) and the distance between
mirror and screen (v).
 Record the values of u and v in a tabular format.
 Now calculate the focal length of a concave mirror by using the relation, f = uv /
(u+v).
 Repeat the experiment to obtain different values of you and in each time measure
we and record it in the table.
 Calculate the focal length of a mirror each time.
 Now calculate the mean of all the focal lengths to get the correct focal length of the
given concave mirror.
TABULATION:
FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS, F = CM 2F = CM
SIZE OF THE OBJECT IMAGE FOCAL LENGTH
IMAGE DISTANCE DISTANCE F=UV/U+V cm
U cm V cm
MAGNIFIED
>2F
SAME SIZE
DIMINISHED
<2F
MEAN
Result:
The focal length of the given concave
1. Distance object method = ……..cm
2. u – v calculation method = ……..cm
3. u – v graphical method = ……..cm
Precautions:
 The lens must be clean.
 The focal length of the convex lens should be lesser than the concave lens.
 For u and v index correction should be applied.
 To obtain a real and inverted image, the source should be kept at a certain
distance.
Sources of Error:
 Vertical uprights might not be used.
 The removal of parallax might not be perfect.
 REFRACTIVE INDEX

Aim
To find the refractive index of a liquid using a convex lens and plane mirror.

Apparatus

 Convex Lens
 Plane Mirror
 Optical Needle
 The clean transparent liquid in a clean beaker
 An iron stand with base and clamp arrangement
 Plane glass slab
 Plumb Line
 Spherometer
 Half metre scale

Theory
Let us consider f1 and f2 to be the focal length of the glass convex lens and liquid lens
respectively and let F be the focal length of their combination, then

1F=1f1+1f2
From the lens maker’s formula

We have,

1f2=(n−1)[1R1−1R2]
Simplifying further, we get

1f2=(n−1)R
Inserting values of f2, n can be calculated.
Diagram

Procedure

For the focal length of the convex lens,

 Choose a convex lens and find its rough focal length.

 Place the plane mirror on the horizontal base of the iron stand and Place the
convex lens on the plane mirror
 Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally
above the lens at a distance equal to its rough focal length.
 Bring the tip of the needle to the principal vertical axis of the lens so the tip of the
needle appears to be touching the tip of its image.
 Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between the tips of the
needle and its image.
 Measure the distance between the tip and upper surface of the lens using a plumb
line and half metre scale.
 Also, measure the distance between the tip and the surface of its plane mirror.
For the Focal Length of the Combination

 Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put a convex
mirror over it.
 Repeat 6, 7 and 8.
 Record your observations.

(c) For the radius of curvature of the convex lens surface

Observations

1. The rough focal length of convex lens = _____ cm

Arrangement The distance of Needle Tip Focal
From lens From plane Meanx=x1+x22 Length
surface x1 (cm) mirror x2 (cm) (cm) x (cm)
1 (2a) (2b) (2c) (3)
Without f1 = _____
Liquid
With Liquid F = _____
The radius of curvature of the convex lens surface, R = _____ cm.

Calculations
1f2=1F−1f1
n=1+Rf2

Precautions

1. Only a few drops of liquid should be taken so as not to thicken the layer.
2. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.
3. The liquid taken should be transparent.
Sources of Error

1. The liquid may not be quite transparent.

2. The parallax may not be fully removed.

JUNCTION DIODE
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a P-N junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Materials Required

1. A P-N junction diode

2. A 3-volt battery
3. A 50-volt battery
4. A high resistance rheostat
5. One 0-3 volt voltmeter
6. One 0-50 volt voltmeter
7. One 0-100 mA ammeter
8. One 0-100 μA ammeter
9. One way key
10. Connecting wires
11. Piece of sandpaper

Theory
Forward bias characteristics
The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, the current also
increases. For Si diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.
Reverse bias characteristics
The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to
the negative terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, there is a small change
in the current but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an increase in the
voltage.

Diagram

Procedure
For forward bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. For voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA), the least count and zero error should
be noted.
 4. To get the zero reading from the voltmeter and milli-ammeter, rheostat should be
brought near the negative end by inserting the key K.
5. To apply the forward bias voltage (VF) of 0.1V, the contact should be moved
towards the positive end. The current remains zero.
6. Keeping current zero, increase the forward bias voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode.
7. To record a small current using milli-ammeter, increase the VF to 0.4 V.
8. Increase the VF by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When the
VF becomes 0.7 V, the current will increase rapidly.
9. When VF = 0.72 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as forward
breakdown stage.
10. Take out the key if the forward current won’t change as V F increased beyond
forward breakdown.
11. Record the observations.
For reverse bias

1. The circuit connections should be as shown in the diagram.

2. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
4. To get zero reading from the voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA, insert the key K
and bring the rheostat near the positive end.
5. To apply reverse bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, move the rheostat to the negative end
so as to flow the reverse current.
6. Increase VR by 0.2 V and record the corresponding current. When V R becomes 20
V, the current will increase rapidly.
7. When VR = 25 V, the current increases suddenly and this is known as reverse
breakdown stage. Record the current reading and take off the key.
8. Record the observations.
Observations
For forward bias
Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter = ……..mA
Table for forward bias voltage and forward current

Sl.no Forward bias voltage VF in V Forward current IF in mA

For reverse bias

Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Zero error of voltmeter = ……..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Zero error of micro-ammeter = ……..μA
Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current

Sl.no Reverse bias voltage VR in V Reverse current IR in μA

Plotting of Graphs
For forward bias
Plot a graph between VF and IF taking VF on the x-axis and IF on the y-axis. The graph
obtained is known as forward bias characteristic curve.
For reverse bias
Plot a graph between VR and IR taking VR on the negative x-axis and negative IR on the y-
axis. The graph obtained is known as reverse bias characteristic curve.

Result
Junction resistance for forward bias = …… ohms
Junction resistance for reverse bias = ……… ohms.
Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

Sources Of Error
1. Faulty junction diode might be supplied.
2. The terminals of battery may not be connected properly.
**********************************************************************************
Activity
Section A Section B
1. Activity 3 (pg.98) 1. Activity 1 (pg.181)
2. Activity 4 (pg.99) 2. Activity 5 (pg.188)
3. Activity 6 (pg.102) 3. Activity 6A (pg.189)