ANAPHY LEC MODULE 9 (NERVOUS SYSTEM )

Major Functions of the Nervous System:

1. Receive sensory input
2. Integrate information
3. Control muscles & glands
4. Maintain homeostasis
5. Establish & maintain mental activity

Main Divisions of the Nervous System:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All nervous tissue outside the CNS (nerves & ganglia).
○ Sensory (Afferent) Division: Sends sensory info to the CNS via sensory neurons.
○ Motor (Efferent) Division: Sends commands from the CNS to muscles & glands via motor neurons.
■ Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
■ Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
■ Sympathetic Division: Prepares the body for stress ("fight or flight").
■ Parasympathetic Division: Promotes rest and digestion ("rest and digest").
○ Enteric Nervous System (ENS): Controls the digestive system independently.

Cells of the Nervous System:

1. Neurons: Transmit electrical impulses and signals.
○ Cell Body: Contains the nucleus and processes stimuli.
○ Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors.
○ Axon: Sends electrical impulses to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
2. Glial Cells (Neuroglia): Support neurons and maintain homeostasis. They don’t conduct impulses but help in neuron function.

Types of Neurons:
1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent): Carry sensory info from receptors to the CNS.
2. Motor Neurons (Efferent): Carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons: Connect neurons within the CNS; involved in processing information and reflexes.

Glial Cells (Neuroglia):

1. CNS Glial Cells:
○ Astrocytes: Support neurons, maintain blood-brain barrier, and regulate blood flow.
○ Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin sheaths around axons in the CNS.
○ Microglia: Act as the immune cells of the CNS, removing debris and pathogens.
○ Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
2. PNS Glial Cells:
○ Schwann Cells: Form myelin sheaths around axons in the PNS and help in regeneration of damaged nerves.
○ Satellite Cells: Support and protect neuron cell bodies in ganglia.

Myelin Sheaths:
● Structure: A fatty, insulating layer around axons formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.
● Function: Prevents ion movement across the membrane, speeding up the transmission of action potentials.
● Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where ion exchange occurs, allowing the action potential to jump, speeding nerve signal
conduction.

Organization of Nervous Tissue

1. Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies and dendrites. It processes and integrates information.
○ Cortex: Outer layer of the brain.
○ Nuclei: Deep clusters of gray matter in the brain.
○ Ganglion: Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the PNS.
2. White Matter: Made up of myelinated axons that transmit signals quickly.
○ Nerve Tracts: Pathways in the CNS that transmit action potentials.
○ Nerves: Bundles of axons in the PNS.

Electrical Signals of Nervous System

1. Resting Membrane Potential: The cell's membrane potential when not firing an action potential (~-70 mV). It’s maintained by a high
concentration of K+ inside and Na+ outside the cell, and the membrane's greater permeability to K+.
2. Action Potential: A rapid change in membrane potential that allows neurons to transmit signals.
○ Depolarization: Na+ enters the cell.
○ Repolarization: K+ exits the cell.
3. Synapse: A junction where neurons communicate, either chemically (neurotransmitters) or electrically (gap junctions).
4. Reflexes: Automatic, rapid responses to stimuli involving a sensory input, integration in the CNS, and a motor output.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
Maintains Na+ outside and K+ inside the cell to compensate for ion leakage, helping maintain the resting membrane potential.

Ion Channels
1. Leak Channels: Always open; more K+ than Na+ channels.
2. Gated Channels: Open in response to specific signals.
○ Chemically Gated: Opened by neurotransmitters.
○ Voltage-Gated: Opened by changes in membrane potential.

Action Potential
A rapid change in membrane potential:
1. Stimulus opens Na+ channels (depolarization).
2. If the threshold is reached, an All-or-None response is triggered.
3. Depolarization continues with Na+ influx.
4. Repolarization occurs when K+ exits.
5. Hyperpolarization briefly makes the cell more negative, then returns to resting potential.
 ANAPHY LEC MODULE 9 (NERVOUS SYSTEM )
Types of Conduction
1. Continuous Conduction: In unmyelinated axons, action potentials propagate along the entire membrane.
2. Saltatory Conduction: In myelinated axons, action potentials jump between nodes of Ranvier, speeding up transmission.

Synapse
A junction where neurons communicate, typically through neurotransmitter release, to transmit signals.

Three Major Components of a Synapse

1. Presynaptic Terminal: End of the axon that stores neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles.
2. Postsynaptic Membrane: Membrane of the dendrite or effector cell.
3. Synaptic Cleft: Space between the presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic membrane.

Synaptic Transmission Process

1. Action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal.
2. Voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels open, allowing Ca²⁺ to enter the cell.
3. Neurotransmitter release via exocytosis.
4. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
5. Chemically-gated ion channels (Na+, K+, Cl-) open or close, depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor type.
6. Stimulation or inhibition of the postsynaptic membrane, leading to potential action potential.

Reflexes and Reflex Arc

● Reflexes: Involuntary responses to stimuli, allowing for quick reactions without conscious thought.
● Reflex Arc: Pathway of a reflex, the simplest functional unit of the nervous system. It includes:
1. Sensory Receptor: Detects the stimulus.
2. Sensory Neuron: Sends the signal to the CNS.
3. Interneurons: Process the stimulus in the CNS.
4. Motor Neuron: Carries the response to the effector.
5. Effector: Muscle or gland that carries out the response.

Neuronal Pathways
1. Converging Pathway: Multiple neurons synapse on one postsynaptic neuron, converging information from different pathways.
2. Diverging Pathway: One neuron synapses with multiple postsynaptic neurons, spreading information across different pathways.

Summation integrates multiple signals to trigger an action potential.

1. Spatial Summation: Local potentials from different locations on the neuron add up (e.g., from converging pathways).
2. Temporal Summation: Rapid, overlapping local potentials from a single input that fires in quick succession.

Spinal Cord
● Location: Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd lumbar vertebra.
● Protection: Encased by the vertebral column.
● Cauda Equina: The bundle of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the spinal cord, resembling a horse's tail.

Organization of the Spinal Cord

1. Gray Matter: Center of the spinal cord, shaped like an "H" or butterfly, contains:
○ Posterior Horns: Axons synapse with interneurons.
○ Anterior Horns: Contain somatic neurons.
○ Lateral Horns: Contain autonomic neurons.
○ Central Canal: Fluid-filled space in the center.
2. White Matter: Located on the outer portion, organized into:
○ Dorsal/Posterior, Ventral/Anterior, and Lateral Columns.
○ Ascending Tracts: Carry action potentials to the brain.
○ Descending Tracts: Carry action potentials from the brain.

Spinal Cord Reflexes

1. Knee-Jerk (Patellar) Reflex: A stretch reflex triggered by tapping the patellar ligament.
○ Function: Tests posture and coordination.
○ Abnormal: Can indicate CNS damage.
2. Withdrawal (Flexor) Reflex: Triggered by painful stimuli to remove a body part from the source of pain.
○ Pathway: Pain receptors → Sensory Neuron → Dorsal Root → Interneurons → Motor Neuron → Withdrawal.

Spinal Nerves
● Origin: Formed from the union of dorsal and ventral roots.
● Composition: All are mixed nerves (contain sensory and motor neurons).
● Types: 31 pairs categorized by the region of the vertebral column (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal).
● Dermatome: Area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve.

Plexus
● Definition: An area where neurons from different spinal nerves intermingle.
● Major Plexuses: Cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.
 ANAPHY LEC MODULE 9 (NERVOUS SYSTEM )
Brain
The brain consists of the following major regions:
1. Brainstem
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Cerebrum
Brainstem Overview
The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the brain, controlling vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and reflexes. It consists of three main parts:

Medulla Oblongata
● Location: Lower part, continuous with the spinal cord.
● Prominent Features: Contains pyramids, involved in voluntary muscle control.
● Functions:
○ Vital functions: Regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, coughing, vomiting, and balance.
○ Prominent Function: Controls autonomic functions essential for survival (e.g., heart rate, respiration).

Pons
● Location: Above the medulla.
● Prominent Features: Arched Footbridge, connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum.
● Functions:
○ Coordinates sensory and motor information between the brain and body.
○ Prominent Function: Aids in breathing control, and coordinates swallowing, chewing, salivation, and balance.

Midbrain
● Location: Smallest region, above the pons.
● Prominent Features:
○ Superior Colliculi: Visual reflexes.
○ Inferior Colliculi: Auditory relay.
○ Substantia Nigra: Regulates body movement.
● Functions:
○ Coordinates eye movements, controls pupil diameter and lens shape.
○ Prominent Function: Regulates motor control and sensory processing (vision, hearing).
Reticular Formation – a group of nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem
✔ Function: regulates cyclical motor function (respiration, walking, chewing)
✔ This is a major component of the Reticular Activating System, which plays an important role in arousing and maintaining consciousness, and in
regulating sleep-wake cycle
Cerebellum – attached to brainstem by several large connections called cerebellar peduncles; known as “little brain”
✔ Structure: Cortex is composed of gray matter, gyri, and sulci; internally contains gray nuclei & white nerve tracts
✔ Functions: Maintaining balance & muscle tone, coordination of fine motor movements, learning motor skills
✔ Comparator – a major function which serves as a sensing device that compares the data from two sources – motor cortex & peripheral
structures
✔ Proprioceptive Neurons – innervated in joints, tendons, and muscles that provide information about the position of the body; send action
potentials to cerebellum

Diencephalon – part of brain between brainstem & cerebrum consisting of:

Diencephalon Components

Thalamus
● Location: Largest part of the diencephalon, shaped like a yo-yo, with two lateral parts connected by the interthalamic adhesion.
● Characteristics: A cluster of nuclei.
● Function:
○ Relays sensory and motor signals to the cortex.
○ Influences mood and detects pain (unlocalized).

Epithalamus
● Location: Small area, superior and posterior to the thalamus.
● Characteristics: Consists of small nuclei.
● Prominent Feature: Pineal Gland
○ Endocrine gland that influences puberty and regulates long-term cycles influenced by the light-dark cycle (circadian rhythms).
● Function: Emotional and visceral responses to odors.

Hypothalamus
● Location: Inferior to the thalamus, at the base of the brain.
● Characteristics: Contains several small nuclei, including the infundibulum (a stalk connecting to the pituitary gland) and mammillary
bodies (involved in emotional responses and memory).
● Function:
○ Regulates homeostasis: body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual responses.
○ Controls emotions like rage and fear, and promotes relaxation after eating.
○ Key Role: Controls the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland.
 ANAPHY LEC MODULE 9 (NERVOUS SYSTEM )
Cerebrum Overview
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure.

Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

1. Frontal Lobe:
○ Functions: Controls voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression, mood, and olfactory reception (smell).
2. Parietal Lobe:
○ Functions: Receives and consciously perceives sensory information (touch, pain, temperature, balance).
3. Occipital Lobe:
○ Functions: Processes visual input and perception.
4. Temporal Lobe:
○ Functions: Involved in olfactory (smell) and auditory (hearing) sensations, and memory processing.
○ Psychic Cortex: Associated with abstract thought and judgment.
5. Insula (Fifth Lobe):
○ Location: Deep within the lateral fissure.
○ Function: Processes interoception — sensory information about the internal state of the body (e.g., heartbeat, blood pressure,
gastric motility).

Cerebral Cortex
● Location: Outer layer of the cerebrum, composed of gray matter.
● Functions:
○ Controls thinking, communication, memory, understanding, and initiates voluntary movements.

Prominent Features of the Cerebral Cortex

● Gyri: Folds on the cortex that increase surface area.
● Sulci: Shallow grooves between gyri.
○ Central Sulcus: Separates the frontal and parietal lobes.
○ Lateral Fissure: Separates the temporal lobe from the rest of the cerebrum.