Topic 3: The OSI Reference Model

OSI Model

 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.

Why the OSI Reference Model was developed?

 At earlier times, vendors used to implement their networking models for enabling
network communication. These models were proprietary and product-specific. Hence,
data transportation was possible between the devices that were created by the same
manufacturer.
 Here, the need for a product-neutral network model arises so that it may work for
devices manufactured by different vendors. Hence, the OSI model was developed and
created for proposing standards for networking or telecommunication system.
Developers obtain knowledge about implementing and installing various network
devices in digital communication arrangements. Again, common policies are assigned
for software developers as well as hardware manufacturers so that smooth
communication can occur in the network.

 OSI is made up of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is
the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical
layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers namely;

1. Physical
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
 6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1. Physical layer
  The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

 Line Configuration - It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
 Data Transmission - It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology – It defines how the network devices are physically arranged.
 Signals - Determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2. Data-Link Layer

 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

  It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
 It contains two sub-layers:

o Logical Link Control Layer

o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into data packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.

 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
 higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occur, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has
control over the link at a given time.

3. Network Layer

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
  Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

 Internetworking - An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network

layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing - A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header
of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing - Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines
the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing - A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by
internet protocol (IP).

4. Transport Layer
  The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the

internet.
 It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
 When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the
correct order at the receiving end.

o User Datagram Protocol (TCP)

 User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

 It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

 Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this

reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
 computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

5. Session Layer
  It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6. Presentation Layer
  A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
  Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia
such as text, audio, video.

7. Application Layer

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used
to provide that global information about various objects.
The OSI Layer functions summary: